QAMPBELL
COLLECTION

PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER

ENGLISH SERIES
No. XIII

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

Published by the University of Manchester at

THE UNIVERSITY PRESS (H. M. McKECHNiE, M.A., Secretary)
23 LIME GROVE, OXFORD ROAD, MANCHESTER

LONGMANS, GREEN & CO.

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AN ANGLO-SAXON
VERSE-BOOK

BY

W. J. SEDGEFIELD, M.A., LITT.D,

SMITH PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

MANCHESTER: AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON, NEW YORK, ETC. : LONGMANS, GREEN & CO.

1922

PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER

No. CLIII

A II rights reserved

PREFACE

THIS Anglo-Saxon Verse-Book is an anthology in which the most
representative and original parts of our earliest poetic literature are
brought together. The selections are arranged under headings in
accordance with their literary affinities, the idea of an organic whole
being throughout emphasized. The anthology is intended to illus-
trate a course of study, whether private or in university lectures, of
Anglo-Saxon self-expression in literature. The requirements of the
literary student receive, perhaps for the first time in such a book, as
much attention as those of the philologist. The introductory notes
make up a sort of running commentary which it is hoped will send
the student to such works as The Cambridge History of English
Literature, vol. i. ; A. Brandt's Geschichte der altenglischen Literatur ;
ten Brink's History of English Literature, vol. i. ; and the valuable
studies by Professors Earle, Chambers, Lawrence, Chadwick, and
other English, American, German, and Scandinavian scholars, who have
worked in the Anglo-Saxon field. The most novel features of the
selections here given are the inclusion of Widsith and Exodus, and
the full use that has been made of Beowulf, a poem which is in itself
almost a literature. An Anglo-Saxon Prose-Book on lines similar to
those of the present book is in preparation, which, if auspices are
good, may see the light within a reasonable time.

W. J. SEDGEFIELD.

MANCHESTER, August 1922.

CONTENTS

PAGES

PREFACE ......

GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY . . 1-27

i) Widsith.

(2) Waldere.

(3) Deor.

(4) Legend and Story in Beowulf: (a) The Scyld-

ing Dynasty, (b) Sigemimd and Fitela. (c}
Offa's Queen, (d) Frisians, Danes, and Jutes.
(e) Danes and Heathobards. (/) Geats and
Franks, (g) Geats and Swedes. (h} The
Brosings' Necklace.

(5) The Fight at Finnsburh.

II. ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING . 28-48

(6) The Wanderer.

(7) The Seafarer.

(8) A Woman's Complaint.

(9) The Husband's Message.

(10) Wolf and Eadwacer.

(11) Elegiac and Moralizing Passages in Beowulf:

(a) The Arrogant Ruler, (b) Buried Treasure.
(c) An Inexpiable Crime.

(12) A Bad Character.

( 1 3) The Fates of Men.

III. NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE . . 49-79

(14) Beowulf: (a] The Swimming-match, (b) The

Fight with Grendel. (c} The Haunts of the
Ogres, (d) The Visit to the Pool of Monsters.

vii

viii CONTENTS

PAGES

(<?) Beowulf's Fight with the Dragon. (/) Beo-
wulf's Obsequies, (g) Hero-Lays in the making.
(ft) Scenes in Heorot. (/') Beowulf is made

«

a Hereditary Chief. (/) Weapons and Armour.

(15) The Battle of Brunanburh.

(16) The Battle of Maldon.

IV. BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN .... 80-103

(17) (a) Csedmon's Hymn. (b) Bede's Death-song.

(18) Biblical and Religious Passages in Beowulf: (a)

The Minstrel sings the Story of Creation.
(b) The Curse of Cain. (c) Heathen Sacrifices.
(d] Hidden Treasure. (e) Selected Shorter
Passages.

(19) Exodus.

(20). Cynewulf: (a) Crist, (b} Elene.

V. MISCELLANEOUS ..... 104-124

(21) Gnomic and Didactic : (a) The Ways of Creation.

(b} The Gifts of Men. (<:) A Father's Advice.

(22) Riddles.

(23) Rhyme Poem.

(24) Late A.-S. and Transitional Verse.

APPENDIX ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION . 125

NOTES ..... I31

V

GLOSSARY. . . 193

NAMES OF PERSONS AND PLACES 243

I. GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

1. WIDSITH

In this, one of the earliest surviving A.-S. poems, we have perhaps the first
written expression in a vernacular speech of that race-consciousness of the
Germanic peoples to which Latin and Greek writers, with Tacitus at their head,
bear witness. In a few introductory lines (1-9) we are told how the minstrel
Widsith, ' the far-travelled,' visited in the train of the Lady Ealhhild the court
of the great Gothic king Ermanric. Widsith then in person proceeds to give a
list of Germanic peoples and their rulers, occasionally adding comments of his
own and boasting of his wide experience as a traveller (10-56). Next he gives
another list, this time of widely scattered races and tribes which he claims to
have visited (57-87). Then follows an account of a splendid gift made to him
by Ermanric, of another made by Ealhhild, and of his visits to the various rulers
of peoples allied with or owing allegiance to Ermanric (88-134). The poem ends
with a few lines on the functions of a minstrel.

Scholars are agreed that the poem consists of an original nucleus with later
additions. There can be little doubt, for example, that 11. 75-87, where Greeks,
Egyptians, Indians, Israelites, Scots, Picts, etc. are mentioned haphazard, are
the addition of some well-meaning monk who wished to bring his gazetteer up to
date, or at least to make it more complete. But the original version of the
poem may well have included lists of Germanic tribes and their rulers, as such
mnemonic lists are met with elsewhere in old Germanic records, e.g. in Bede's
Ecclesiastical History, and the Introduction to the Winchester version of the
A.-S. Chronicle, as well as in the Icelandic muster-rolls and hero-lays. The
mere recital by the bard of the names of famous heroes and their peoples would
deeply stir the hearers, to whom each hero's name would recall lays in which
his deeds were sung. As the Germanic chiefs mentioned in Widsith lived be-
tween the middle of the third and the middle of the sixth century A.D., it is
clear that the poem cannot be regarded as the actual record of a traveller. Its
real value is, as Dr. Chambers well says, * that it shows us what was the stock-
in-trade of the old Anglian bard.' He says further, 'We have such a survey of
Germanic geography and legend as might have been made by a gleeman who
drew his lore from the traditions of the ancient Angel. From this point of view
everything drops into its right place : the knowledge shown of the Anglo-Frisian
tribes and of their legends, of their immediate neighbours, and the more or less
complete ignorance of everything else, with the one exception of Gothic saga,
become at once intelligible. ' * Professor W. P. Ker, in his Medieval English
Literature, p. 28, says, ' The poem is a kind of fantasia, intended to call up by

1 Widsith, p. 165.

I B

2 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

allusion the personages of the most famous stories ; it is not an epic poem, but it
plays with some of the plots of heroic poetry familiar throughout the whole
Teutonic region.'

Widsitk is preserved in a MS. written in the West-Saxon literary dialect of
the end of the tenth century. The original poem must have been composed in
Northumbria, perhaps before the end of the seventh century. The .early date of
the original nucleus of the poem is established by considerations of geography
and heroic legend, supported by the evidence of language and metre.

WldslS maSolade, wordhord onleac
se pe (monna) masst mae^pa ofer eor]?an,
folca geondferde ; oft he (on) flette gepah
mynelicne mappum. Him from Myrgingum
5 3e]?ek> onwocon. He mid Ealhhilde,
fselre freo]?uwebban, forman sl]?e
HreScyninges ham gesohte
eastan of Ongle, Eormanrlces,
wra]?es wabrlogan. Ongon J?a worn sprecan j
10 * Fela ic monna gefraegn mabgjmm wealdan ;
' sceal ]?eod(n)a gehwylc ]?eawum lifgan,
1 eorl aefter 6]?rum e<51e rsedan,
' se ]?e his ]?eodenstol gepeon wilej

Para waes (H)wala hwlle selasf"

ond Alexandreas ealra ricost

monna cynnes, ond he msest gej»ah

]?ara ]?e ic ofer foldan gefrsegen haebbe^)

weold Hunum, Eormanrlc Gotum,

* Becca Baningum, Burgendum Gifica. \
20 ' Casere weold Creacum ond Gaelic Finnum,

' Hagena Holmry^um ond He0den Glommum.
' Witta weold Swabfum, Wada Haelsingum,
' Meaca Myrgingum, Mearchealf Hundingum.

* Peodrlc weold Froncum, Pyle Rondingum,
2 5 ' Breoca Brondingum, Billing Wernum,

' Oswine weold Eowum, ond Ytum Gefwulf,
' Fin Folcwalding Fresna cynne.)
' Sigehere lengest Sae-Denum weold,
c Hnaef Hocingum, Helm Wulfingum,
,0 ' Wald Woingum, Wod Pyringum,

2. masr]>a. 4. hine. 5. asjjele.

21. holmrycum ; henden

I. WIDSITH ;

' Saeferft Sycgum, Sweom Ongend^eow,

' Sceafthere Ymbrum, Sceafa Longbeardum,

' Hun Haetwerum, ond Holen Wrosnum. J ^

1 Hringweald waes haten Herefarena cyning^, *

35 'Offa weold Ongle, Alewih Denum_y

' se waes ]mra manna modgast ealra ;

' no hwae]?re he ofer Offan eorlscype fremede,

' ac Offa geslog aerest monna

( cnihtwesende cynerlca maest ;
4° * nsenig efeneald him eorlscipe maran

' on orette ane sweorde

' merce gemaerde wi5 Myrgingum

1 bl Flfeldore ; heoldon forS si}?]?an

' Engle ond Swaefe swa hit Offa geslog.)
45 * Hro]?wulf ond HroSgar heoldon lengest

* sibbe aetsomne, suhtorfaedran,

* si]?]?an hy forwrsecon Wicinga cynn
' ond Ingeldes ord forbigdan,

' forheowan aet Heorote HeaSobeardna ]?rym.)
50 ' Swa ic geondferde fela fremdra londa

' geond ginne grund ; godes ond yfles

"/

1 freomeegum feor folgade wide.

ic cunnade cnosle bidseled,

X

' For]?on ic maeg singan ond secgan spell,
55 'm'jenan fore mengo in meoduhealle,

' hu me cynegode cystum dohten.y
c Ic waes mid Hunum ond mid Hre5-Gotum,

' mid Sweom ond mid Geatum ond mid Su]?-Denum.

' Mid Wenlum ic waes ond mid Waernum ond mid Wlcingum.
60 ' Mid Gef ]?um ic waes ond mid Winedum ond mid Gefflegum.

' Mid Englum ic waes ond mid Swsefum ond mid J^nenum.

1 Mid Seaxum ic waes ond (mid) Sycgum ond mid Sweordwerum.

'Mid Hronum ic waes ond mid Deanum ond mid Hea]?o-
Reamum.

' Mid Pyringum ic waes ond mid Prowendum
65 { ond mid Burgendum, ]?£er ic beag ge]?ah ;

' me J?ser GuShere forgeaf glaedlicne ma]?]?um

' songes to leane ; naes ]?aet saene cyning.^/

' Mid Froncum ic waes ond mid Frysum ond mid Frumtingum.

4 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

' Mid Rugum ic wses ond mid Glommum ond mid Rumwalum./
70 ' Swylce ic wses on Eatule mid ^Elfwine,
1 se haefde moncynnes mine gefrsege

* leohteste bond lofes to wyrcenne,

* heortan unhneaweste hringa gedales,
' beorhtra beaga, beam Eadwines.7

75 'Mid Sercingum ic wses ond mid Seringum.

c Mid Creacum ic wses ond mid Finnum ond mid Casere,

* se ]?e wmburga geweald ante,

' vfiolena ond wilna ond Wala rices./

' Mid Scottum ic waes ond mid Peohtum ond mid Scride-Finnum.
80 ' Mid Lid-Wlcingum ic waes ond mid Leonum ond mid Long-
beardum,

* Mid HseSnum ond mid HsereJ^um ond mid Hundingum,
' Mid Israhelum ic wses ond mid Exsyringum,

c mid Ebreum ond mid Indeum ond mid Egyptum.
' Mid Moidum ic wses ond mid Persum ond mid Myrgingum,
'ond Mofdingum ond ongend Myrgingum
' ond mid Amothingum. Mid East-Pyringum ic wses
' ond mid Eolum ond mid Istum ond Idumingum.y
1 Ond ic wses mid Eormanrice ealle J?rage,
' }?ser me Gotena cyning gode dohte ;
go ' se me beag forgeaf, burgwarena fruma,
1 on ]?am siexhund wses smsetes goldes
' gescyred sceatta scillingrlme ;
*J?one ic Eadgilse on seht sealde,
'mlnum hleodryhtne, J»a ic to ham bicwom,
'leofum to leane, J>ses ]?e he me lond forgeaf,
' mines fseder e]?el, frea Myrginga.
' Ond me ]?a Ealhhild 6]?erne forgeaf,
'dryhtcwen dugu]?e, dohtor Eadwines.
1 Hyre lof lengde geond londa fela,
100 *J?onne ic be songe secgan sceolde
1 hwser ic under swegl(e) selast wisse
'goldhrodene cwen giefe bryttian.
' Donne wit Scilling sclran reorde
' for uncrum sigedryhtne song ahofan,
'hlude bi hearpan hleo)?or swinsade;

78. wiolane. 81. haelejmm.

I. WIDSITH 5

']?onne monige men modum wlonce

* wordum sprecan, ]?a J>e wel cu]?an,
'j?set hi nsefre song sellan ne hyrdon.
'Donan ic ealne geondhwearf e]?el Gotena;

no 'sohte ic a (ge)sl]?a J>a selestan ;

']?33t wses innweorud Earmanrlces^/

* HeScan sohte ic ond Beadecan ond Herelingas,
' Emercan sohte ic ond Fridlan ond Eastgotan,

~* ' frodne ond godne faeder Unwenes.y

115 'Seccan sohte ic ond Beccan, Seafolan ond peodric,

* Hea]?orlc ond Sifecan, Hli}»e ond Incgen]?eow.

* Eadwine sohte ic ond Elsan, ^Egelmund ond Hungar,
— ' ond ]?a wloncan gedryht Wi]?-Myrgin^a.y

* Wulfhere sohte ic ond Wyrmhere ; ful oft j?aer wig ne alaeg,
120 {]?onne Hrseda here heardum sweordum ^ '

' ymb Wlstlawudu wergan sceoldon

'ealdne e]?elst6l ^Etlan leodum.^

' Rsedhere sohte ic ond Rondhere, Rumstan ond Glslhere,

' WiJ?ergield ond Freo]?eric, Wudgan ond Haman \\
125 'ne waeran J>8et gesi]?a ]?a ssemestan,

' J»eah ]?e ic hy anihst nemnan sceolde.

c Ful oft of ]?am heape hwmende fleag

' giellende gar on grome J>eode ;

' wrasccan J>£er weoldan wundnan golde,
130 'werum ond wlfum, Wudga ond Hama./

' Swa ic J?set symle onfond on ]?£ere feringe,

*J?aet se bty leofast londbuendum,

' se J>e him God syleS gumena rice

' to gehealdenne, ]?enden he her
135 Swa scrl]?ende gesceapum hweorfaS

gleomen gumena geond grunda fela,

]?earfe secgaS, J>oncword spreca]?,

simle suS o]?]?e norS sumne gemetaS

gydda gleawne, geofum unhneawne,
140 se ]?e fore dugu]?e wile dom arseran,

eorlscipe asfnan, o}> ]?3et eal scaeceS,

leoht ond Hf somod ; lof se gewyrceS,

hafaS under heofonum heahfaestne dom.

GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

2. WALDERE

This fragment of a hero-lay, preserved by a happy chance on two vellum
leaves in the Royal Library of Copenhagen, is important as confirming the
testimony of Beowulf w\& Widsith to the fact that the Anglo-Saxons were inter-
ested in the stories of Germanic heroes other than those of ' the two seas.'
The tale of Walther (Waldere), the West Gothic hero of Aquitaine, is known to
us from several continental versions, one of which, written about the middle of
the tenth century by the St. Gall monk Ekkehard, comes nearer to the English
version than the others. Walther, who has lived for years as a hostage at the
court of Attila (/Etla), flees homeward, taking with him his lady-love the Bur-
gundian princess Hildegund (Hildegyth) and much treasure. He is attacked in
a mountain-pass by the Burgundian king Gunther (Guthhere) at the head of a
small band of warriors including Hagen (Hagena) the Frank, Walther's old
friend. Ekkehard tells us that after a desperate fight Walther slays all his foes
except Gunther and Hagen, who retire to the plain. On the following day
these two again fall upon Walther, as he comes down from the pass with Hilde-
gund. After hours of fighting they make peace. According to the A.-S.
fragment Waldere, exhausted by the struggle, offers Guthhere the famous sword
Mimming and treasure for a respite. Guthhere refuses (1. 28) and the fight is
renewed, Hagena succeeding Guthhere. In the first part of the fragment Hilde-
gyth is encouraging her lover ; the second part contains the end of a speech by
Guthhere followed by Waldere's reply. It is noteworthy that though the A.-S.
poem is earlier than Ekkehard's version and nearer to the original story it shows
a Christian editing which is hardly perceptible in Waltharius Manufortis. In
early times A.-S. ecclesiastics were much more inclined than their successors to
compromise with the popular interest in hero-legend, to which they dexterously
imparted an edifying religious colouring.

We can only guess at the length of the original poem. The probability is
that even with the discursive treatment shown in the fragment which has sur-
vived the total number of lines did not much exceed one thousand.

1 hyrde hyne georne :

1 hum Welande[s] wore ne geswlceft
4 monna senigum ]?ara 5e Mimming can
' hear(d)ne gehealdan. Oft aet hilde gedreas
5 c swatfafg] ond sweordwund sec(g) setter 6]?rum.
' ^Etlan ordwyga, ne last 5ln ellen nu gy[t]
'gedreosan to dsege, dryhtscipe (feallan).

' ac is se daeg cumen,

' J?aet Su scealt aninga 6?>er twega,
10 'Iff forleosan oblfe lange dom
'agan mid eldum, .ZElfheres sunu.
1 Nalles ic Se, wine mm, wordum clde,

II. WALDERE

1 5y ic 5e gesawe aet 5am sweord/legan

'5urh edwitscype teniges monnes
15 'wig forbugan o55e on weal fleon,

'lice beorgan, 5eah ]?e la<5ra fela

{5mne byrnhomon billum heowun,

1 ac 5u symle furSor feohtan sohtest,

' mail ofer mearce. Dy ic 5e metod ondred,
20 ' ]?aet 5u to fyrenlice feohtan sohtest

' ast 5am se^stealle, oSres monnes

' wlgrsedenne. WeorSa 5e selfne

'godum dsedum, Senden 5ln God recce.

' Ne murn 5Q for Si mece ; <5e wearS maSma cyst
25 'gifeffe to eoce unc. Dy Su GuGhere scealt

' beot forblgan, <5ses 5e he 5as beaduwe ongan

* m(i)d unryhte Merest secan ;

* forsoc he 5am swurde ond 5am syncfatum,
{ beaga msenigo ; nu sceal bega leas

30 ' hworfan from 5isse hilde, hlafurd secan,
' ealdne e]?el, o55e her ser swefan,
'gif he5a

B

4 [me]ce bseteran

' buton 5am anum 5e ic eac hafw
35 ' on stanfate stille gehlded.

' Ic wat ]?aet (h)i/ Sohte Deodric Widian

' selfum ons[en]don ond eac sine micel

1 ma5ma mid 51 mece, monig o5res mid him

' golde gegirwan, iulean genam,
40 ' l^aes 5e hine of nearwum Nl5hades mseg,

1 Welandes beam, Widia ut forlet

' 5urh fffela gefeald for5 onejtte.'
Waldere ma5elode, wiga ellenrof,

haefde him on handa hildefrofre,

gu5billa gripe, gyddode wordum :

' Hwset, 5u hum wendest, wine Burgenda,

1 ]?set me Hagenan hand hilde gefremede

13. sweordwlegan. 21. aststealle. 29. MS. has beaga for bega

34. hafa. 36. for hit Sohte MS. has ic Sohte.

8 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

' ond getwsemde [fe]<5ewigges ; feta, gyf Su dyrre,
' set <5us heaSuwerigan hare byrnan.
50 ' Stand<?S me her on eaxelum ^Ifheres laf

* god ond geapneb, golde geweorSod,
'ealles unscende aeSelinges reaf
'tohabbanne, bonne ha(n)d wereS

' feorhhord feondum : ne biS fah wiS me,
55 'bonne unmsegas eft ongynnaS,
' mecum gemetaS, swa ge me dydon.
' Deah mseg sige syllan se Se symle byS

* rec^n ond r^edfest ryh[ta] gehwilces ;

* se 5e him to 5am halgan helpe gelifeS,
60 ' to Gode gioce, he J>8er gearo findeS,

' gif Sa earnunga ser geSenceS ;
'J>onne moten wlance welan britnian,
' aehtum wealdan ; J?set is ....

I

3. DEOR

A minstrel named Deor tells us that after years of service he has been sup-
planted in his lord's favour by a rival, Heorrenda, who has received the land
which had been previously granted to Deor. In his misery Deor tries to comfort
himself by recalling unhappy events in hero-story which had at length passed
away and lost their bitterness. This little piece, one of the very few A.-S. poems
with a personal note, might well have been placed in the next section, but its
references to famous events and personages of legend make it more convenient to
include it with the other poems relating to Germanic story. Particularly notice-
able is the refrain, unique in A.-S. poetry, which divides the main part of the
poem into strophes (stanzas) of varying lengths.

Weland him be weamum wraeces cunnade,
anhydig eorl earfo]?a dreag,
hsefde him to gesi]?be sorge ond longa]?,
wintercealde wrace ; wean oft onfond,
c siJ?J?an hine Ni<5had on nede legde,
swoncre seonobende on syllan monn.
Pass ofereode, pisses swa maeg.

Beadohilde ne waes hyre bro]?ra dea]?
on sefan swa sar swa hyre sylfre ]?ing ;
10 ]?32t heo gearollce ongieten hsefde,
]?set heo eacen wses ; sefre ne meahte
ge]?encan hu ymb J?set sceolde.

50. standatS. 58. recon. 62. mtoten. i. wurman. 4. wrsece.

III. DEOR 9

Paes ofereode, ]?isses swa mseg.

We ]?aet (be) MseShilde monge gefrugnon :
15 wurdon grundlease Geates frige,

J?set hi(m) seo sorglufu sleep ealle binom.

Paes ofereode, pisses swa mseg.
Deodric ante J^ritig wintra

Mgeringa burg; ]?set waes monegum cuj?.
20 paes ofereode, ]?isses swa mseg.
We geascodan Eormanrlces

wylfenne ge]?6ht ; ahte wide folc

Gotena rices ; ]?set wses grim cyning.

Sset secg monig sorgum gebunden,
25 wean on wenan, wyscte geneahhe

]?set ]?3es cynerlces ofercumen wsere.

Pses ofereode, pisses swa maeg.
SiteS sorgcearig sselum bidaeled,

on sefan sweorceft; sylfum ]?ince5
30 ]?set sy endeleas earfoSa dsel.

Maeg ]?onne ge]?encan J>set geond ]?as woruld

witig Dryhten wende]? geneahhe :

eorle monegum are gesceawaS,

wislicne blaed, sumum weana dabl.
35 Pset ic bi me sylfum secgan wille,

]?set ic hwlle waes Heodeninga scop,

dryhtne dyre ; me waes Deor noma.

Ahte ic fela wintra folgacS tilne,

holdne hlaford, o]? J>aet Heorrenda nu,
40 leoScraeftig monn, londryht ge]?ah,

J?aet me eorla hleo ser gesealde.

Paes ofereode, ]?isses swa maeg.

4. LEGEND AND STORY IN BEOWULF

Beo'w^tlf, the longest and finest of the surviving A.-S. poems, is a story or
rather two stories of adventure, and is perhaps the first romance to be written
in a Germanic language. It consists of two parts, (i) the visit of Beowulf the
young Geat prince to the court of Hrothgar the Danish king, his slaying in the
royal hall Heorot of two man-eating ogres, Grendel by name, and his return
home laden with gifts ; (2) the fight, fifty years later, of Beowulf with a fire-
breathing dragon, his death and funeral obsequies. The poem thus consists of
two folk-tales recounting the slaying of monsters, set in a framework of Germanic

10 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

hero-story. Some of the details in BeowulPs adventure and even some of the
names have their counterparts in Icelandic sagas of a much later date than our
poem, while the dragon-slaying story meets us several times in Germanic legend,
e.g. in the Volsunga saga and the Nibelungenlied.

To the student of Germanic origins the most interesting part of Beowulf lies
perhaps in the passages which recall the old stories of feuds and battles between
various Germanic (including Scandinavian) peoples. At least one of these
* digressions ' from the main narrative (No. 4 F) has been shown to rest on a his-
torical basis, while the rest, though unconfirmed by other sources save for a few of
the names, most probably contain a nucleus of historical fact with an accretion of
legend. It is interesting to note that some of the names of Germanic peoples
and their rulers which figure in the Widsith lists come to life, as it were, in
these digressions of Beowulf > while another A.-S. poem, the Fight at Finns bur h
(No. 5), is generally considered to be a lay describing the details of a fight
alluded to in one of the Beowulf episodes (No. 4 D).

When and where was Beowtilf written, what manner of man wrote it, was
it an original work or a translation, what were its sources, have we the original
form of the poem or a later interpolated version ? These questions and others
have been discussed with much learning and acumen by many scholars during
the last hundred years. The general view nowadays is that the poem was
written down, if not actually composed, in the north of England early in the
eighth century by an Englishman, probably but not necessarily an ecclesiastic,
familiar with courts and refined, i.e. aristocratic, society ; further, that we have
in the sole extant MS. a copy of the original form of the poem, which was not
a translation or adaptation of a Scandinavian original but the work of a man of
talent, well versed in legendary lore and a master of the Old English poetical
technique. It is possible that Beowulf was composed for a particular occasion
and for a particular circle of hearers, such as a royal court or the brethren of a
monastery, who, as we learn from several sources, were fond of listening to
tales of heroic prowess and adventure. The biblical and religious allusions
and sentiments scattered through our poem would still further commend it to
a religious society. Though Beowulf deals exclusively with continental Germanic
story, its tone, style and metre are entirely English, being quite different from
those of the much later Scandinavian poetry. The author was familiar, as were
his hearers (or readers), with the countless lays about Danes, Swedes, etc.
which were still sung by gleemen all over the land.

Beowulf represents the highest level reached by the surviving A.-S. poetry,
both in its plan and in its execution, as well as in its language and versification.
The tone is invariably grave, wise and restrained ; the narrative sustained and
sinewy, the scenes and events clearly visualized and portrayed.

The text of the poem is written in the West-Saxon literary dialect of the tenth
century, into which the early Northumbrian poems were turned in later times
for the sake of southern readers and hearers.

A. THE SCYLDING DYNASTY
11. 1-63

This is the opening passage or prologue of the poem ; it is a recapitulation of
part of the history of the Danish royal family, doubtless familiar to those for
whom the poet wrote.

IV. LEGEND AND STORY IN BEOWULF I I

Hwset, we Gar-Dena in geardagum

}?eodcyninga ]?rym gefrunon,

hu Sa se]?elingas ellen fremedon.

Oft Scyld Scefing scea]?ena ]?reatum
5 monegum m£eg]?um meodosetla ofteah ;

egsode eorl(as), sy<5<5an aerest wearS

feasceaft funden ; he }>33s frofre gebad,

weox under wolcnum, weorftmyndum ]mh,

oS J>aet him seghwylc ymbsittendra
10 ofer hronrade hyran scolde,

gomban gyldan ; ]?get wses god cyning.

Daim eafera wses sefter cenned

geong in geardum, Jxme God sende

folce to frofre ; fyrenSearfe ongeat,
15 ]>d hie £er drugon aldor[le]ase

lange hwile. Him j^ses Hffrea,

wuldres wealdend, woroldare forgeaf ;

Beowulf wses breme — bleed wide sprang —

Scyldes eafera, Scedelandum in.
20 Swa sceal [geong g]uma g5de gewyrcean,

fromum feohgiftum, on fseder [ser]ne

J7aet hine on ylde eft gewunigen

wilgestyas, ]?onne wig cume,

leode gelsesten ; lofdsedum sceal
25 in mseg}?a gehw^w man ge]?eon.

Him Sa Scyld gewat to gescaephwile

felahror feran on frean waere ;

hi hyne ]?a astbseron to brimes faroSe,

swsese gesij^as, swa he selfa bsed,
30 ]?enden wordum weold wine Scyldinga,

leof landfruma, lange ante.

Pair set hylSe stod hringedstefna

Isig ond utfus, ae]?elinges faer ;

aledon ]?a leofne ]?eoden,
35 beaga bryttan, on bearm scipes,

maerne be mseste. Paer waes madma fela

of feorwegum fraetwa gelseded.

Ne hyrde ic cymlicor ceol gegyrwan

9. J>ara ymbsittendra. 15. ])aet. 25. gehwsere.

I 2 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

hildewsepnum ond heaSowsedum,
40 billum ond byrnum ; him on bearme laeg

madma msenigo, J?a him mid scoldon

on flodes sent feor gewitan.

Nalaes hi hine labssan lacum teodan,

J>eodgestreonum, J?on(ne) ]?a dydon
45 be hine set frumsceafte for<5 onsendon

ainne ofer ySe umborwesende.

pa gyt hie him asetton segen g[yl]denne

heah ofer heafod, leton holm beran,

geafon on garsecg ; him wses geomor sefa,
50 murnende mod. Men ne cunnon

secgan to soSe selenedenafe,

hasleS under heofenum, hwa ]?sem hlseste onfeng.
Da W85S on burgum Beowulf Scyldinga,

leof leodcyning, longe ]?rage
55 folcum gefrsege — fasder ellor hwearf,

aldor of earde — o}> ]?set him eft onwoc

heah Healfdene ; heold ]?enden lifde

gamol ond guSreouw glaede Scyldingas.

Deem feower beam for5 gerimed
60 in worold wocun, weoroda rabswa

Heorogar, ond HroSgar ond Halga til ;

hyrde ic J?aet (. . . . waes On)elan cwen,

Heafto-Scilfingas healsgebedda.

B. SlGEMUND AND FlTELA

11. 874-900

While the party of thanes is riding home to Heorot after a visit to Grendel's
haunts, one of them, to beguile the journey, chants lays about Sigemund the
famous outlaw and dragon-slayer and his nephew Fitela.

Welhwylc gecwseS

]?set he fram Sigemunde(s) secgan hyrde
ellendsedum, uncu]?es fela,
Wselsinges gewin, wide siSas
]?ara ]?e gumena beam gearwe ne wiston,
fsehSe ond fyrena, buton Fitela mid hine,

51. seleraedenne.

IV. LEGEND AND STORY IN BEOWULF I 3

70 ]?onne he swulces hwaet secgan wolde,

earn his nefan, swa hie a waeron

set niSa gehwam nydgesteallan ;

haefdon ealfela eotena cynnes

sweordum gesseged. Sigemunde gesprong
75 sefter deaSdsege dom unlytel,

sy]?<5an wiges heard wyrm acwealde,

hordes hyrde ; he under harne stan,

ae]?elinges beam, ana geneSde

frecne dsede ; ne wses him Fitela mid ;
80 hwae]?re him gesselde Sset ]?aet swurd ]?urhwod

wrsetlicne wyrm, J>aet hit on wealle aetstod,

dryhtlic iren ; draca morSre swealt.

Hsefde aglseca elne gegongen

]?3et he beahhordes brucan moste
85 selfes dome ; saebat gehlod,

baer on bearm scipes beorhte fraetwa

Waelses eafera ; wyrm hat gemealt.

Se waes wreccena wide mserost

ofer wer]?eode, wigendra hleo
90 ellendsedum ; he f>aes ser onSah.

C. OFFA'S QUEEN
11. 1931—1962

The Beowulj poet, speaking of Hygd, the gentle, kindly, young queen of
Hygelac, king of the Geats, contrasts her with the queen of Offa, king of the
Angles, who before her marriage displayed a most violent and bloodthirsty
temper. The princess who kills her suitors is a common theme of legend. The
story of Offa the Angle was in later times transferred to Offa, the Mercian king ;
see Widsith (No. 1) 1. 35 n.

wseg

fre(o)mu folces cwen, firen ondrysne ;
neenig ]?aet dorste deor gene]?an
swaesra gesiSa nefne sinfrea
95 ]?aet hire andseges eagum starede,
ac him waelbende weotode tealde
handgewri]?ene ; hra]?e seoJ>San waes

85. gehleod. 91. mod |>rySo.

14 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

sefter mundgripe mece ge^inged,

]?aet hit sceadenmael scyran moste,
100 cwealmbealu cySan ; ne biS swylc cwenlic J>eaw

idese to efnan, ]?eah 5e hio aenlicu sy,

]?aette freoSuwebbe feores ons^ce

aefter ligetorne leofne mannan ;

huru ]?aet onhohsnod(e) Hemwinges mseg.
105 Ealodrincende 63er ssedan,

}?aet hio leodbealewa l^s gefremede,

inwitniSa, sySSan Merest wearS

gyfen goldhroden geongum cempan,

aetfelum diore, sySSan hio Offan flet
1 10 ofer fealone flod be fseder lare

siSe gesohte ; Saer hio sySSan wel

in gumstole gode maere

Hfgesceafta lifigende breac,

hiold heahlufan wiS haele]?a brego,
115 ealles moncynnes mine gefrsege

Ipone selestan bi ssem tweonum,

eormencynnes ; for)?am Offa waes

geofum ond guSum garcene man

wide geweorSod, wisdome heold
120 e5el sinne; ]?onon Eom^ir woe

haeleSum to helpe, Hem(m)inges maeg,

nefa Garmundes, nI5a crseftig.

joi. efnanne. 102. onsaece. 104. hem ninges.

in. well. 116. ]>aes. 120. geomor.

D. FRISIANS, DANES, AND JUTES
The Tragic Story of Finn and Hengest (11. 1063-1 1 59)

After the banquet in Heorot at which Beowulf and his little band are the
guests of honour, the court minstrel begins to chant a lay recounting the tragic
story of Finn, king of the Frisians, and Hengest, the Danish chief. The poet
does not give us the actual lay, but an account, partly narrative, partly allusive
comment, of the events leading to Finn's death. These events, familiar as they
must have been to the poet's hearers or readers, are rather obscure to us, and
various attempts have been made by scholars to reconstruct the story. The
sequence of events seems to have been as follows : Finn is away from his

IV. LEGEND AND STORY IN BEOWULF I 5

central kingdom (the Frisian islands), perhaps on the mainland opposite
(Holland) ; he has brought with him a bodyguard of Jutes. These Jutes
quarrel with a band of Danes, countrymen of Finn's wife Hildeburh, and make
an attack on the hall of Hnaef the Danish prince, Hildeburh's brother. The
attack, which lasts five days, is described in the Fight at Finnsburh (No. 5),
which should be read in conjunction with the Beonvulf episode. Finn finds
himself obliged to intervene and joins in the assault on the hall. Hnsef is slain,
but the leadership of his Danes passes to Hengest, who makes such a good
defence that Finn, who has by this time lost most of his officers (11. 140, 141
infra), offers him terms of peace. The terms are, that Hengest and his Danes
shall have equal honour and privileges with Finn's Jutes, and further that they
shall not be taunted with having made peace with the slayers of their chief
Hnsef. Hengest agrees to the terms and the peace is solemnly ratified, after
which the bodies of the slain princes, Hildeburh's brother(s) and son(s), are
placed together on the funeral pile and burned, while the queen laments her
dead (11. 177, 178). Hengest accompanies Finn to Friesland and stays there
during the winter, loyally observing the treaty of peace. But with the advent
of spring, thoughts of revenge stir within his breast ; he returns to his people
and takes service with Hunlafing the Dane. Egged on by Guthlaf and Oslaf,
who are, perhaps, survivors of the fight in Hnsef's hall, a party of Danes sets
out for Friesland, slays Finn, burns and plunders his palace, and returns home
with Finn's Danish queen.

The story is a tragedy of inner conflict. Honour and loyalty require that
Hengest shall not make peace with the slayer of his prince, but fight on to
death or victory. Yet, he reflects, Finn did not kill Hnsef by treachery but
in fair fight, moreover in the offered peace-terms Finn shows delicacy and
consideration for the feelings of Hengest and his Danes ; there is no dishonour
then, no betrayal of the dead ; so he accepts peace. During the winter his
conscience gives him no rest ; the inbred ideas of honour and loyalty reassert
themselves in full strength. We are not told that Hengest helped to kill Finn,
but we may be sure that he ' took it out ' of the Jutes.

The Beowulf story of Finn and Hengest, together with the account of the
egging on of the young Heathobard warrior (see next Selection), and the passage
about the slaying of one brother by another, show us what a wealth of dramatic
motives must have lain in the old hero-lays, and how finely the Anglo-Saxon
minstrel-poets were able to handle them.

wses sang ond sweg samod aetgaedere
fore Healfdenes hildewisan,
I2c gomenwudu greted, gid oft wrecen ;
Sonne healgamen Hr6J?gares scop
aefter medobence rnaenan scolde

* • • • •

Finnes eaferum, Sa hie se fser begeat.
HseleS Healf-Dena, Hnaef Scyldinga,
130 in Freswsele feallan scolde.

Ne huru Hildeburh herian ]?orfte
Eotena treowe ; unsynnum wearS

I 6 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

beloren leofum set j?am /mdplegan,

bearnum ond broSrum ; hie on gebyrd hruron
*35 gare wunde; J?set wses geomuru ides.

Nalles holinga Hoces dohtor

meotodsceaft bemearn sy]?San morgen com,

Sa heo under swegle geseon meahte

mor]x)rbealo maga, J?3er he(o) ser mseste heold
140 worolde wynne. Wig ealle fornam

Finnes ]?egnas nemne feaum anum,

J?85t he ne mehte on J>£em meSelstede

wig Hengeste wiht gefeohtan

ne ]?a wealafe wige for]?ringan
145 }?eodnes Segne ; ac hig him ge]?ingo budon

]?3et hie him 6<5er flet eal gerymdon,

healle ond heahsetl, ]?aet hie healfoe geweald

wiS Eotena beam agan moston,

ond aet feohgyftum Folcwaldan sunu
150 dogra gehwylce Dene weor]x)de,

Hengestes heap, hringum wenede

efne swa swISe, sincgestreonum

fsettan goldes, swa he Fresena cyn

on beorsele byldan wolde.
155 Da hie getruwedon on twa healfa

fseste frioSuwaere ; Fin Hengeste

elne unflitme aSum benemde

J»aet he )?a wealafe weotena dome

arum heolde, ]?3et Sser senig mon
1 60 wordum ne worcum wsere ne braece,

ne J»urh inwitsearo sefre gemsenden,

Seah hie hira beaggyfan banan folgedon

Seodenlease, ]?a him swa ge]?earfod waes.

Gyf J?onne Frysna hwylc freeman spruce
165 Saes mor]?orhetes myndgiend wsere,

]?onne hit sweordes ecg setifan scolde.

A3 wses gesefned, ond icge gold

ahsefen of horde. Here-Scyldinga

betst beadorinca wass on bsel gearu ;

133. hildplegan. 147. healfre.

164. frecnen. 166.

IV. LEGEND AND STORY IN BEOWULF I 7

170 aet j?aem ade waes e]?gesyne

swatfah syrce, swyn ealgylden,

eofer irenheard, seeding manig

wundum awyrded ; sume on waele crungon.

Het Sa Hildeburh set Hnsefes ade
175 hire selfre suna sweoloSe befaestan,

banfatu baernan ond on bail don,

eame on eaxle ; ides gnornode,

geomrode giddum ; guS^rin^ astah,

wand to wolcnum, waelfyra maest
1 80 hlynode for hlawe ; hafelan multon, :

bengeato burston ; Sonne blod setspranc

laSbite lices. Lig ealle forswealg,

gsesta gifrost, ]?ara Se J>a^r guS fornam

bega folces ; wsss hira blsed scacen.
185 Gewiton him 5a wigend wica neosian

freondum befeallen, Frysland geseon,

hamas ond heaburh. Hengest Sa gyt

waelfagne winter wunode mid Finn(e)

el(ne) un/litme ; eard gemunde,
190 ]?eah ]?e he (ne) meahte on mere drifan

hringedstefnan ; holm storme weol,

won wi5 winde ; winter y]?e beleac

isgebinde, o]? 5aet o]?er com

gear in geardas, swa nia gyt de5
195 ]?a(m) Se syngales sele bewitiaS,

wuldortorhtan weder. Da waes winter scacen,

faeger foldan bearm ; fundode wrecca,

gist of geardum ; he to gyrnwraece

swISor J>6hte ]?onne to seelade,
200 gif he torngemSt ]?urhteon mihte "

]?aet he (wiS) Eotena beam inne gemunde.

Swa he rie forwyrnde worodraedenne

]?onne him Hunlafing hildeleoman,

billa selest, on bearm dyde ;
205 ]?aes weeron mid Eotenum ecge cu<5e.

Swylce ferhSfrecan Fin eft begeat

175. sunu. 177. earme. 178. guSrinc.

1 88. finnel unhlitme. 202. woroldraedenne.

I 8 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

sweordbealo sliSen set his selfes ham,

sibSan grimne gripe GuSlaf ond Oslaf

sefter ssesiSe sorge msendon,
210 setwiton weana dsel; ne meahte wsefre mod

forhabban in hrebre. Da wses heal roden

feonda feorum, swilce Fin slaegen,

cyning on corbre, ond seo cwen numen.

Sceotend Scyldinga to scypon feredon
215 eal ingesteald eorScyninges,

swylce hie set Finnes ham findan meahton

sigla searogimma. Hie on sablade

drihtlice wrf to Denum feredon,

Iseddon to leodum.

E. DANES AND HEATHOBARDS
Inciting to Revenge (11. 2020—2069)

On his return home Beowulf relates to King Hygelac his adventures. De-
scribing how Hrothgar's daughter Freawaru, betrothed to Ingeld the Heathobard
prince, moved among the revellers at Heorot, encouraging them to drink, he
prophesies a renewal of the disastrous feud between the Danes and the Heatho-
bards, and describes how an old Heathobard warrior will incite a young one
to murder a Dane. We have here a dramatic * moment,' rising above mere
narrative. The feud between the Danes and the Heathobards is mentioned in
Widsith (No. 1), 11. 45-49.

220 'Hwllum for [djugufte dohtor HroSgares

'eorlum on ende ealuwsege bser,

*]?a ic Freaware fletsittende

'nemnan hyrde, bser hlo [nae]gledsinc

' haeleSum sealde ; slo gehaten [is],
225 'geong goldhroden, gladum suna Frodan;

1 [h]afaS bses geworden wine Scyldinga,

f rices hyrde, ond J>aet rsed talaS,

' J>aet he mid Sy wife waelfsehSa dsel,

' ssecca gese/^te. Oft selS <?nhw<?ar(f)
230 *aefter leodhryre; lytle hwile

' bongar bugeS, J>eah seo bryd duge.

* Maeg bses bonne of byncan Seod«<? HeaSobeardna

211. hroden. 229. gesette ; oft selS onhwearf S. ; oft seldan hwaer MS.

232. fteoden.

IV. LEGEND AND STORY IN BEOWULF I 9

' ond ]?egna gehwam ]?ara leoda,

* ]?onne he mid faemnan on flett gaeS,
235 'dryhtbearn Dena, dugutfe biwenede.

' On him gladiaS gomelra lafe,

' heard ond hringmael, HeaS<?bear(d)na gestreon,

'J?enden hie Sam waepnum wealdan moston,

' oS Saet hie forlseddan to Sam lindplegan
240 ' swsese geslSas ond hyra sylfra feorh.

' Ponne cwiS get beore se Se beo(r)n gesyhS,

' eald aescwiga se Se call gem[an]

'garcwealm gumena — him biS grim sefa —

'onginneS geomormod geong[um] cempan
245 'Jmrh hreSra gehygd higes cunnian,

* wigbealu weccean, ond J>aet word acwyS :
" Meaht Su, mm wine, mece gecnawan,
"jxme ]?m (frod) faeder to gefeohte baer

" under heregriman hindeman siSe,
250 " dyre Iren, J?aer hyne Dene slogon,

" weoldon wselstSwe, sySSan WiSergyld laeg

<( sefter hsele]?a hryre, hwate Scyldungas.

" Nu her ]?ara banena byre nathwylces

"frsetwum hremig on net gseS,
255 "morSres gylpeS ond ]?one ma3]?um byreS,

"J?one )?e Su mid rihte rsedan sceoldest."

( ManaS swa ond myndgaS msela gehwylce

* sarum wordum oS Saet ssel cymeS

* ]?set se fasmnan j^egn fore faeder dsedum
260 ' aefter billes bite blodfag swefeS,

' ealdres scyldig ; him se 63er ]?onan
MosaS [lijfigende, con him land geare.
'Ponne bioS [ajbrocene on ba healfe

* aSsweor^ eorla ; [syS]5an Ingelde
265 ' weallaS waelniSas ond him wiflufan

' aefter cearwselmum colran weorSaS.

* Py ic HeaSobear(d)na hyldo ne telge,
{ dryhtsibbe dsel, Denum unfsecne,
'freondscipe fsestne.'

235. duguffa. 237. heaSa bearna.

241. beah. 264.

20 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

F. GEATS AND FRANKS

In the following three passages we find allusions to an event which has a
foundation in historical fact. Gregory of Tours relates in his Historia Francorum
that ' Danes ' under their king Chochilaicus attacked the Attoarii, a Prankish
tribe dwelling on the lower Rhine, and were defeated by the Frankish king
Theudebert, son of Theuderic, and their king Chochilaicus slain. In another
early account of the event the leader of the invaders is spoken of as Huiglaucus
qui imperavit Getis. These events took place near the site of the modern city
of Cleves about the year 517 A. D. It is to be noted that the three allusions in
Beowulf 'to the invasion are made by the poet, by Beowulf himself, and by a
retainer of the hero respectively (see also infra, 11. 430 ff.). For the origin of the
Franks see Widsith (No. 1), 1. 24 n.

1. 11. 2354-2366

270 No ]?aet Isesest waes

hondgemot(a), J?air mon Hygelac sloh,
sySSan Geata cyning guSe rsesum,
freawine folca, Freslondum on,
HreSles eafora, hiorodryncum swealt

275 bille gebeaten ; ]xman Biowulf com
sylfes crsefte, sundnytte dreah ;
haefde him on earme [ana] J^rittig
hildegeatwa, ]?a he to holme [sta]g.
Nealles Hetware hremge ]?orf[t]on

280 feSewiges, ]?e him foran ongean
linde baeron ; lyt eft becwom
fram J?am hildfrecan hames niosan.

2. 11. 2501-2508

Sy55an ic for dugeSum Dseghrefne wearS
to handbonan, Huga cempan j

285 nalles he 5a fraetwe Frescyning(e),
breostweorSunge, bringan moste,
ac in compe gecrong cumbles hyrde,
seeding on elne. Ne wses ecg bona,
ac him hildegrap heortan wylmas,

290 banhus gebraec.

3. 11. 2910-2921

Nu ys leodum wen
orleghwlle, sySSan under(ne)

287. cempan.

IV. LEGEND AND STORY IN BEOWULF 2 I

Froncum ond Frysum fyll cyninges
wide weorSeS. Waes sio wroht scepen

295 heard wiS Hugas, sySSan Higelac cwom
faran flotherge on Fresna land,
basr hyne Hetware hilde genaegdon,
elne geeodon mid ofermaegene
J?set se byrnwiga bugan sceolde,

300 feoll on feSan ; nalles fraetwe geaf
ealdor dugoSe ; us waes a sySSan
Merewioingas milts ungyfeSe.

G. GEATS AND SWEDES

The references to the feuds between these peoples are more detailed than any
other of the Germanic ' digressions ' in Beowulf. The Swedes at the beginning
of the sixth century A.D. dwelt to the N. and N. E. of the two great lakes Wener
and Wetter ; the Geats occupied part of the territory now known as Gotarike to
the S. and S.W. of these lakes and thus were a maritime people whose coasts
were within easy sail of the Danish islands. The chief city of the Geats was
probably situated near the modern Goteborg. At a later period the Geats were
conquered by the Swedes and became part of the Swedish kingdom, retaining
however for centuries their national characteristics.

1. 11. 2472-2489

Beowulf, while taking leave of his followers before going to fight the dragon,
recalls the events of his youth. He tells of the wars which followed the death
of his grandfather Hrethel.

Pa waes synn ond sacu Sweona ond Geata

ofer wid [wjaeter, wroht gemsene,
305 hereniS hearda, sySSan HreSel swealt.

OngenSeowes eaferan waeran

frome, fyrdhwate ; freode ne woldon

ofer heafo healdan, ac ymb Hreosna-Beorh

eatolne inwitscear oft gefremedon.
310 Paet maegwine mine gewraecan,

faahSe ond fyrene, swa hyt gefrsege waes,

]?eah 5e 6Ser hi/ ealdre gebohte,

heardan ceape j HaeScynne wearS,

Geata dryhtne, gu5 onssege.

297. gehnaegdon. 306. o$5e him ongenSeowes. 312. his.

22 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

315 Pa ic on morgne gefrsegn mseg oSerne

billes ecgum on bonan stselan,

J?£er Ongenbeow Eofores niosaS;

guohelm toglad, gomela Scylfing

hreas (hilde)blac ; bond gemunde
320 fsehSo genoge, feorhsweng ne ofteah.

2. 11. 2922-2998

,The messenger who announces to the Geats the death of Beowulf recalls past
feuds between Swedes and Geats. He continues the story begun by Beowulf.

Ne ic \.o SweoSeode sibbe o5Se treowe

wihte ne wene, ac waes wide cu<5

]?3ette OngenSIo ealdre besnySede

HaeScen Hre]?ling wiS Hrefna-Wudu,
325 J?a for onmedlan serest gesohton

Geata leode GuS-Scilfingas.

Sona him se froda fseder Ohtheres,

eald ond egesfull, ondslyht ageaf,

abieat brimwisan, bryd a/feorde
330 gomela iomeowlan golde berofene,

Onelan modor ond Ohtheres,

ond 5a folgode feorhgeniSlan

oS Saet hi oSeodon earfoSlice

in Hrefnes-Holt hlafordlease.
335 Besset 5a sinherge sweorda lafe

wundum werge, wean oft gehet

earmre teohhe ondlonge niht,

cwaeS he on mergenne meces ecgum

getan wolde, sum(e) on galgtreowu(m)
340 (fuglum) to gamene. Frofor eft gelamp

sarigmodum somod serdsege,

sySSan hie Hygelaces horn ond byman,

gealdor ongeaton, J?a se goda com

leoda dugoSe on last faran.
345 Wses sio swatswaSu Sw(e)ona ond Geata,

wselrees weora, wide gesyne,

hu Sa folc mid him fsehSe towehton.

321. te. 328. hondslyht. 329. abreot ; aheorde.

IV. LEGEND AND STORY IN BEOWULF 23

Gewat him Sa se goda mid his gaedelingum,

frod felageomor, fsesten secean,
350 eorl Ongenjno ufor oncirde —

hsefde Higelaces hilde gefrunen,

wlonces wigcrseft, wiSres ne truwode

]?aet he ssemannum onsacan mihte,

heaSolISendum, hord forstandan,
355 beam ond bryde; beah eft ]x>nan

eald under eorSweall. Pa waes sent boden

Sweona leodum, segn Higelace ;

freoSowong ]?one for5 ofereodon,

sySSan HreSlingas to hagan J?rungon.
360 pser wearS OngenSiow ecgum sweordtf,

blondenfexa, on bid wrecen,

]?aet se ]?eodcyning Safian sceolde

Etffores anne dom ; hyne yrringa

Wulf Wonreding wsepne gersehte,
365 )?3et him for swenge swat aedrum sprong

forS under fexe. Naes he forht swaSeh,

gomela Scilfing, ac forgeald hraSe

wyrsan wrixle waelhlem ]?one,

sySSan Seodcyning J?yder oncirde.
370 Ne meahte se snella sunu Wonredes

ealdum ceorle hondslyht giofan,

ac he him on heafde helm jer gescer,

]?aet he blode fah bugan sceolde,

feoll on foldan ; nses he f^ege ]?a git,
375 ac he hyne gewyrpte, ]?eah 5e him wund hrine.

Let (J?a) se hearda Higelaces J>egn

brad(n)e mece, ]?a his broSor laeg,

ealdsweord eotonisc entiscne helm

brecan ofer bordweal ; Sa gebeah cyning,
380 folces hyrde waes in feorh dropen.

Da wseron monige )>e his mseg wriSon,

ricone arserdon, 5a him gerymed wearS

)?set hie waelstowe wealdan moston.

Penden reafode rinc oSerne,
385 nam on OngenSIo irenbyman,

360. sweordum. 363. eafores.

24 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

heardswyrd hilted ond his helm somod,

hares hyrste Higelace bser.

He <5[am] frsetwum feng ond him faegre gehet

leana [mid] leodum ond gelseste swa ;
390 geald bone guSrses Geata dryhten,

HreSles eafora, J?a he to ham becom,

lofore ond Wulfe mid ofermaSmum,

sealde hiora gehwaeSrum hund busenda

landes ond locenra beaga — ne Sorfte him Sa lean oSwitan
395 mon on middangearde, sySSa(n) hie Sa mserSa geslogon —

ond Sa lofore forgeaf angan dohtor

hamweorSunge, hyldo to wedde.

3. 11. 2379-2396

The Beowulf poet relates events long subsequent to those described in the
preceding passages. Ongentheow, the Swedish king, was succeeded on the
throne by his son Ohthere, who in turn was followed by his brother Onela.
The former's two sons, having quarrelled with their uncle Onela, fled to the court
of Hygelac's son, Heardred, now king of the Geats. Onela pursued his
nephews and killed Heardred, who had taken their part. Beowulf succeeded
Heardred as king of the Geats and afterwards helped Eadgils to take vengeance
on his uncle Onela.

Hyne wrsecmsecgas

ofer sae sohtan, suna Ohteres ;
400 hsefdon hy forhealden helm Scylfmga,

]?one selestan sabcyninga

bara 5e in Swiorice sine brytnade,

meerne beoden ; him beet to mearce wearS.

He basr (f)or feorme feorhwunde hleat
405 sweordes swengum, sunu Hygelaces,

ond him eft gewat OngenSioes beam

hames mosan, syc^an Heardred laeg ;

let Sone bregostol Blowulf healdan,

Geatum wealdan ; baet wses god cyning.
410 Se Saes leodhryres lean gemunde

uferan dogrum, Eadgilse wearS

feasceaftum freond, folce gestepte

ofer sse side sunu Ohteres

wigum ond waepnum ; he gewraec sy^an
415 cealdum cearsISum, cyning ealdre bineat.

389. gelaesta. 404. orfeorme.

V. THE FIGHT AT FINNSBURH 25

H. THE BROSINGS' NECKLACE
11. 1192-1211

Hrothgar's queen, Wealhtheow, gives Beowulf a splendid collar as a reward
for having slain the two Grendel monsters. It was comparable to the legendary
Brosinga mene, the Brisinga men of the Icelandic Edda, where the necklace
is worn by the goddess Freyja. But in the Edda there is no mention of
Eormenric's possession of the treasure.

Him waes ful boren ond freondlajm

wordum bewaegned, ond wunden gold

estum geeawed, earmreade twa,

hraegl ond hringas, healsbeaga msest
420 ]?ara ]?e ic on foldan gefraegen haebbe.

Nsenigne ic under swegle selran hyrde

hordmaSm haelejm, sy]?San Hama setwaeg

to )>2ire byrhtan byrig Brosinga mene,

sigle ond sincfaet ; searoniSas Ueah
425 Eormenrices, geceas ecne rsed.

Pone bring haefde Higelac Geata,

nefa Swertinges, nyhstan siSe,

siS]?an he under segne sine ealgode,

wselreaf werede ; hyne wyrd fornarn
43° sy]?(5an he for wlenco wean ahsode,

fsehSe to Frysum ; he J?a frsstwe wseg,

eorclanstanas, ofer ySa ful,

rice ]?eoden ; he under rande gecranc.

Gehwearf ]?a in Francna fse]?m feorh cyninges,
435 breostgewsedu, ond se beah somod.

5. THE FIGHT AT FINNSBURH

This fragment of a lay, describing the attack on Hnsef's hall by Finn's
followers, must be read in connexion with the Finn ' episode ' in Beowulf (see
No. 4 D supra). The relation to each other of the two narratives has been
touched on in the introductory note to that episode. With its mixture of
narrative and speeches the Fight at Finnsburh has a literary affinity with
Waldere and the Battle of Maldon. That its subject and the names in it are
part of the Germanic hero-story is not of itself clear proof of antiquity, for these
stories were current till at least the beginning of the tenth century. The
evidence of the language and style of the poem is not conclusive, though both

423. here. 424. fealh.

26 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

differ from those of the early poetry. The versification also differs considerably
from that of Widsith, Beowulf and other A.-S. poems generally admitted to be of
early date.

[ horjnas byrnaS nsefre.'

HleoJ?rode Sa hea/ogeong cyning :

' Ne Sis ne dagaS eastan, ne her draca ne fleogeS,

* ne her Sisse healle hornas ne byrna<5,
5 * ac her for}? beraS

fugelas singaS,

* gylleS grseghama, guSwudu hlynneS,

' scyld scefte oncwyS. Nu scyneS ]?es mona

' waSol under wolcnum ; nu arisaS weadseda
10 'Se Sisne folces niS fremman willaS.

1 Ac onwacnigeaS nu, wigend mine,

eowre ^anda, hkgea)? on ellen,
on orde, wesaS on mode.'

Da aras maenig goldhladen Segn, gyrde hine his swurde ;
15 Sa to dura eodon drihtlice cempan,

SigeferS and Eaha hyra sword getugon,

and set 6]?rum durum Ordlaf and Gu]?laf,

and Hengest sylf hwearf him on laste.

Da gyt Garulf GuSere styr^de,
20 Saet he swa freolic feorh forman si]?e

to Ssere healle durum hyrsta ne babre,

nu hyt ni]?a heard anyman wolde ;

ac he fraegn ofer eal undearninga,

deormod haele]?, hwa 3a duru heolde.
25 ' Sigefer]? is mm nama, ic com Secgena leod,

' wrec^rea wide cuS ; faela ic weana gebad,

' he^rdra hilda. De is gyt her witod,

* swae]?er Su sylf to me secean wylle.'

Da wses on zoealle waelslihta gehlyn,
sceolde cel(/)<?^ bor^/ ^renum on handa,
banhelm berstan ; buruhSelu dynede,
oS set Ssere gu5e Garulf gecrang
ealra ierest eorSbuendra,

2. hearo geong. 12. habbaS landa ; hie gea]?.

13. ]>indaS. 19. styrode. 21. baeran.

25. nama cwej) he ic. 26. wrecten. 27. heordra.

29. healle. 30. celses bortJ genumon handa.

V. THE FIGHT AT FINNSBURH 27

GuSlafes sunu, ymbe hyne godra faela,
35 hwearnYcra hrsea;. Hraefen wandrode

sweart and sealobrun ; swurdleoma stod,

swylce eal Finn(e)s burh fyrenu wsere.

Ne gefrsegn ic nsefre wur)?licor set wera hilde

sixtig sigebeorna sel gebaeran,
40 ne nefre sw/tne medo sel forgyldan,

Sonne Hnaefe guldan his haegstealdas.

Hig fuhton fif dagas swa hyra nan ne feol,

drihtgesISa, ac hig Sa duru heoldon.

Da gewat him wund haelecS on waeg gangan,
45 ssede }?aet his byrne abrocen wsere,

heresceorpum hror, and eac waes his helm <5yr(e)l.

Da hine sona fraegn folces hyrde

hu 5a wigend hyra wunda genseson
hwae]?er Saera hyssa

35. hwearflacra hraer. 37. finnsburuh.

40. ne nefre swa noc hwitne medo.

II. ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING

This section contains practically all that has,' survived of what a modern
reader will regard as the most permanent and poetical part of Anglo-Saxon
verse, i.e. the subjective element, which bears witness that our remote ancestors
were men and women with sentiments and emotions like ourselves. When we
read the lyrics of ancient China, of Greece and Rome, the centuries fall away
and our mood attunes itself to that of old-time singers ; even so is it when we
listen to the complaint of an Anglo-Saxon minstrel who has lost his lord and
is a wanderer in distant lands, or of an Anglo-Saxon woman who longs for her
absent lover ; or again, to the musings of a wise old man on the ways of
mankind and the world.

6. THE WANDERER

This poem, like the next one, expresses longing, regret and disillusion ;
both of them speak the language of the heart. The Wanderer is a monologue
by an old or elderly man who has long survived his lord and now, journeying
far from home, has no friend to whom he may confide his sorrows, for he is too
proud and sensitive to unbosom himself to strangers. He yearns to see the
old faces and lives the old days over again, then awakes to the dreary present.
He moralizes on the vanity of earthly things, the passing away of men and of
the world itself, and finally he seeks consolation in his heavenly Father. In
this poem and the next, the first sixty lines or so are the expression of personal
feeling ; the remaining lines are somewhat trite moralizing.

Judged by their language and metre these poems may be nearly as old as
Beowulf^ but here, as in other cases, the internal evidence is not decisive as to
the date of composition. There is a noticeable absence in the Wanderer of
'kennings ' or equivalents, which are such a prominent feature of A.-S. poetry ;
see Appendix, § 5.

Oft him anhaga are gebideS,
Metudes miltse, }?eah J>e he modcearig
geond lagulade longe sceolde
hreran mid hondum hrimcealde SJE,
5 wadan wraeclastas ; wyrd biS ful arsed.
Swa cwaeS eardstapa earfeba gemyndig,

28

VI. THE WANDERER 29

wraj>ra wselsleahta, winemaga hryre :

Oft ic sceolde ana uhtna gehwylce

mine ceare cwij^an ; nis nu cwicra nan
10 ]>e ic him modsefan minne durre

sweotule asecgan. Ic to so]?e wat

]?35t bi]? in eorle indryhten ]?eaw

j?ajt he his fer(h)Slocan faeste binde,

healde his hordcofan, hycge swa he wille.
15 Ne maeg werig mod wyrde wiSstondan,

ne se hreo hyge helpe gefremman ;

for Son domgeorne dreorigne oft

in hyra breostcofan bindaS faeste.

Swa ic modsefan minne sceolde
20 oft earmcearig, eSle bidseled,

freomsegum feor feterum sselan,

si]?]?an geara iu goldwine mm(n)e

hrusan heolster biwrah ond ic hean Jjonan

wod wintercearig ofer wa]?ema gebind,
25 sohte sele dreorig sinces bryttan,

hwaer ic feor o]?]?e neah findan meahte

J?one }>Q in meoduhealle min(n)e wisse,

o]?)?e mec freondleas(n)e frefran wolde,

wenian mid wynnum. Wat se J>e cunnaS
30 hu slij?en biS sorg to geferan

]?am )?e him lyt hafaS leofra geholena ;

waraS hine wrseclast, nales wunden gold,

fer(h)Sloca freorig, nalaes foldan blabd ;

gemon he selesecgas ond sinc]?ege,
35 hu hine on geoguSe his goldwine

wenede to wiste ; wyn eal gedreas.

For Ipon wat se }>e sceal his winedryhtnes

leofes larcwidum longe for]x)lian,

Sonne sorg ond slaip somod aetgaedre
4° earmne anhogan oft gebindaS —

SinceS him on mode J?aet he his mondryhten

clyppe ond cysse ond on cneo lecge

honda ond heafod, swa he hwilum aer

in geardagum giefstolas breac.

14. healdne. 23. heolstre.

30 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING

45 Donne onwsecneS eft wineleas guma,

gesihS him biforan fealwe wegas,

banian brimfuglas, braedan fe]?ra,

hreosan hrim ond snaw hagle gemenged.

Ponne beoS J?y hefigran heortan benne,
50 sare aefter swsesww ; sorg bi5 geniwad

J»onne maga gemynd mod geondhweorfeS ;

greteS gliwstafum, georne geondsceawaS

secga geseldan ; swimmaS eft on weg,

fleotendra fer(h)5 no ]?£er fela bringeS
55 cuSra cwidegiedda ; cearo biS geniwad

]?am }>e sendan sceal swlj^e geneahhe

ofer waj»ema gebind werigne sefan.

For J?on ic ge]?encan ne mseg geond ]?as woruld

for hwan modsefa min ne gesweorce
60 ]?onne ic eorla Hf eal geond]?ence,

hu hi fserlice flet ofgeafon,

modge maguj^egnas. Swa ]?es middangeard

ealra dogra gehwam dreoseS ond fealle]? ;

for J?on ne mseg we^rSan wis wer ser he age
65 wintra dael in woruldrice. Wita sceal ge]?yldig,

ne sceal no to hatheort, ne to hraedwyrde,

ne to wac wiga, ne to wanhydig,

ne to forht, ne to faegen, ne to feohgifre,

ne nsefre gielpes to georn, ser he geare cunne.
7° Beorn sceal gebidan, ]?onne he beot spriceS,

o]) ]?aet collenfer(h)5 cunne gearwe

hwider hre]?ra gehygd hweorfan wille.

Ongietan sceal gleaw hsele hu gaestlic biS,

J>onne ealre }>isse worulde wela weste stondeS,
75 swa nu missenlice geond }?isne middangeard

winde biwaune weallas stonda]?,

hrime bihrorene, hrySge ]?a ederas.

WoriaS ]?a winsalo, waldend HcgaS

dreame bidrorene ; duguS eal gecrong
80 wlonc bi wealle ; sume wig fornom,

ferede in forSwege ; sumne fugel o]?b3er

50. swaesum S., swaesne MS. 53. oft. 64. weariSan.

74. ealle.

VI. THE WANDERER 3 I

ofer heanne holm ; sumne se hara wulf

deaSe gedselde ; sumne dreorighleor

in eorSscraefe eorl gehydde.
85 YJ?de swa J?isne eardgeard selda Scyppend,

o}> ]?33t burgwara breahtma lease,

eald enta geweorc idlu stodon.

Se ]?onne ]?isne wealsteal wise gej?ohte

ond ]?is decree lif deope geond]?ence9,
9° fr5d in fer(h)(5e, feor oft gemon

waelsleahta worn ond J>as word acwiS :

' Hwaer cwom mearg ? hwser cwom mago ? hwslr cwom ma]?)>um.
gyfa?

4 hwser cw5m symbla gesetu ? hwser sindon seledreamas ?

* Eala, beorht bune ! eala, byrnwiga !

95 « eala, }?eodnes ]?rym ! hu seo J?rag gewat,

* genap under nihthelm swa heo no waere !
' StondeS nu on laste leofre dugu]?e

* weal wundrum heah, wyrmlicum fah ;
' eorlas fornoman asca ]?ry]?e,

ico 'wsepen wselgifru, wyrd seo msere,

' ond J?as stanhleo]?u stormas cnyssaS ;

'hr!5 hreosende hrusa(n) bindeS,

' wintres woma, }>onne won cymeS,

1 nipeS nihtscua, nor]?an onsendeS
105 'hreo haeglfare haelejmm on andan.

' Eall is earfoSlic eorj?an rice,

' onwendeS wyrda gesceaft weoruld under heofonum ;

' her biS feoh Isene, her biS freond laene,

' her biS mon laene, her biS mseg Isene ;
no 'eal J)is eor)?an gesteal idel weor]?eS.'

Swa cwaeS snottor on mode, gesset him sundor aet rune.

Til bi]> se J?e his treowe gehealdeS; ne sceal njefre his torn to
rycene

beorn of his breostum acyj^an, nem]?e he ser ]?a bote cunne,

eorl mid elne gefremman. Wei biS )?am ]?e him are seceS,
n^ frofre to Faeder on heofonum, J?aer us eal seo fsestnung stondeS.

102. hruse.

32 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING

7. THE SEAFARER

We can hardly doubt that this poem is by the same author as the preceding
one ; there is the same sadness, self-pity, longing and weariness. If anything,
the feeling is more intense, with alternations of phase ; now the hardships of
sea-life are uppermost in the writer's thoughts, now the irresistible call of that
life. After 1. 64 the poem, like the preceding one, relapses into conventional
moralizing. We have omitted 22 or 23 lines with which the poem ends in the
MS., as they are definitely religious rather than moralizing. It is possible that
the latter part of this poem and of the Wanderer may have been later ' tail-
pieces ' added by some monk for purposes of edification.

Mseg ic be me sylfum soSgied wrecan,

sibas secgan, hu ic geswincdagum

earfoShwile oft browade,

bitre breostceare gebiden hsebbe,
5 gecunnad in ceole cearselda fela,

atol yba gewealc, baer mec oft bigeat

nearo nihtwaco set nacan stefnan,

bonne he be clifum cnossa<5. Calde gebrungen

mine fet wseron, forste gebunden,
10 caldum clommum ; beer ba ceare seofedun

hat ymb heortan ; hungor innan slat

merewerges mod. Paet se mon ne wat,

be him on foldan faegrost limpe<5,

hu ic earmcearig iscealdne see
15 winter wunade wrseccan lastum,

( ), winemeegum bidroren,

bihongen hrimgicelum ; haegl scurum fleag.

Peer ic ne gehyrde butan hlimman sae,

iscaldne wseg, hwilum ylfete song ;
20 dyde ic me to gomene ganetes hleobor

ond huilpan sweg fore hleahtor wera,

msew singende fore medodrince.

Stormas beer stanclifu beotan, beer him stearn oncwaeS

isigfebera ; ful oft baet earn bigeal
25 urigfebra (.

). Neenig hleomsega,

feasceaftig fer(h)3, feran meahte.

For bon him gelyfeS lyt se be ah Hfes wyn,

9. waeron mine fet.

VII. THE SEAFARER 33

gebiden in burgum bealosijm hwon,

wlonc ond wmgal, hu ic werig oft
30 in brimlade bidan sceolde.

Nap nihtscua, nor)?an sniwde,

hrim hrusan bond, haegl feol on eor]?an,

corna caldast. For ]?on cnyssaS nu

heortan ge]?ohtas, J?aet ic hean streamas,
35 sealty]?a gelac, sylf cunnige ;

monaS modes lust majla gehwylce

fer(h)S to feran, J?ast ic feor heonan

el]?eodigra card gesece.

For J>on nis ]?aes modwlonc mon ofer eor]?an
40 ne his gifena ]?aes g5d, ne in geogu]?e to J?3es hwset,

ne in his d^edum to J?aes deor, ne him his dryhten to J?aes hold,

}>3et he a his ssefore sorge nsebbe,

to hwon hine dryhten gedon wille.

Ne bi]? him to hearpan hyge ne to hring]?ege
45 ne to wife wyn ne to worulde hyht

ne ymbe owiht elles nefne ymb y5a gewealc,

ac a hafaS longunge se ]?e on lagu fundaS.

Bearwas blostmum nimaS, byrig faegriaS,

wongas wlitig(i)a3, woruld onetteS ;
50 ealle ]?a gemoniaS modes fusne

sefan to si<5e, )?am ]?e swa ]?ence5

on flodwegas feor gewita^ ;

swylce geac monaS geomran reorde,

singeS sumeres weard, sorge .beodeS
55 bitter in breosthord. Past se beorn ne wat,

secg esteadig, hwaet ]?a sume dreogaS

]?e ]?a wraaclastas widost lecgaS.

For ]?on nu mm hyge hweorfeS ofer hre]?erlocan,

mm modsefa mid merefl5de
60 ofer hwaeles e]?el hweorfeS wide,

eor}?an sceatas ; cyme<5 eft to me

gifre ond grsedig, gielleS anfloga,

hweteS on (h)waelweg hre]?er unwearnum

ofer holma gelagu ; for J>on me hatran sind
65 Dryhtnes dreamas J?onne ]?is deade lif,

52. gewitaft. 56. easteadig secg.

D

34 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING

Isene on londe ; ic gelyfe no

]?aet him eorSwelan ece stondaS.

Simle ]?reora sum J?inga gehwylce,

ser his tid aga, to tweon weor]?eS :
70 adl o]?]?e yldo o]?]?e ecghete

fsegum fromweardum feorh o<5]?ringe(5.

For Jxm (is) ]?aet eorla gehwam seftercwe]?endra,

lof lifgendra, lastworda betst,

]?aet he gewyrce, ser he on weg scyle :
75 fremman on foldan wiS feonda mj?

deorum dsedum deofle togeanes

]?aet hine aelda beam aefter hergen

ond his lof si]?]?an lifge mid englum

awa to ealdre, ecan Hfes blsed,
80 dream mid duge]?um. Dagas sind gewitene,
ealle on median eor]?an rices ;
ne (a)ron nu cyningas ne caseras
ne goldgiefan swylce iu waeron,
jxmne hi msest mid him ni3er]?a gefremedon
85 ond on dryhtlicestum dome lifdon ;

gedroren is ]?eos duguS eal, dreamas sind gewitene ;
wuniaS ]?a wacran ond f>as woruld healda]?,
brucaS ]?urh bisgo. Bleed is gehnseged,
eorj^an indryhto ealdaS ond searaS,
sw^ nu monna gehwylc geond middangeard ;
yldo him on fareS, onsyn blacaS,
gomelfeax gnornaS, wat his iuwine,
se]?elinga beam, eor]?an forgiefene.

Ne maeg him J>onne se flseschoma, ]?onne him J»aet feorg losaS,
ne swete forswelgan ne sar gefelan
ne hond onhreran ne mid hyge J>encan.
Peah he grsef wille golde stregan,
broker his geborenum, by^gan be deadum
ma]?mum mislicum f>aet he ne mid wille,
100 ne mseg ]?8ere sawle J?e bi}> synna ful
gold to geoce for Godes egsan,
Jxmne he hit ser hydeS, ]?enden he her leofaS.

• •••••«.

67. stondeS1, 69. ege, 82. naeron. 98. byrgan. 99. hi.

VIII. A WOMAN'S COMPLAINT 35

8. A WOMAN'S COMPLAINT

A woman gives utterance to her despair and longing for her lover, who has
been driven into exile by his enemies. She is forced to live in a cave hollowed
beneath an oak in a wild mountain glen, where she spends her days in sorrow.
She calls down misfortune on the head of the man who is the cause of her
troubles.

This moving little poem is a genuine lyric, which for sincerity and direct
appeal to our hearts challenges comparison with the songs of any literature.
Together with Wolf and Eadivacer and the Husband's Message it represents all
that has survived of A.-S. love poetry. Fortunately they have escaped the
attentions of the moralizing ecclesiastics who have come near spoiling some of
the genuine poetry of the Anglo-Saxons. At the same time we must not forget
that more of the A.-S. lyrics might have survived if they had received such
attentions.

Ic J?is giedd wrece bi me ful geomorre ;

mmre selfre siS ; ic baet secgan mseg,

hwaet ic yrm]?a gebad sibban ic up weox,

niwes obbe ealdes, no ma bonne nu ;
5 a_ic wite wonn minra wrsecsiba.

^Erest mm hlaford gewat heonan of leodum

ofer yba gelac ; haefde ic uhtceare

hwsbr mm leodfruma londes wsere ;

Sa ic me feran gewat folgaS secan,
TO wineleas wrsecca, for minre weaj>earfe.

Ongurmon ]?get J?ses monnes magas hycgan

J>urh dyrne ge]?oht ]?9et hy todaelden unc,

]?ast wit gewidost in woruldrice

lifdon laSlicost ond mec longade.
1 5 Het mec hlaford mm her heard niman ;

ahte ic leofra lyt on bissum londstede,

holdra freonda. ForJ?on is min hyge geomor,

<5a ic me ful gemaecne monnan funde

heardsaeligne, hygegeomorne,
20 rnod mibendne, morbor hycgend(n)e.

Ful oft wit beotedan blibe gebaerum

)?set unc ne gedselde, nemne deaS ana,

owiht elles. Eft is ]?aet onhworfen,

is nu ( . . .) swa hit no wsere,
25 freondscipe uncer. Sceal ic feor ge neah

2 1 MS. order of half lines reversed.

36 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING

mines felaleofan fsehSu dreogan.

Heht mec mon wunian on wuda bearwe

under actreo in ]?am eorSscrsefe ;

eald is ]?es eorSsele, eal ic eom oflongad ;
30 sindon dena dimme, dunu uphea,

bitre burgtunas, brerum beweaxne,

wic wynna leas. Ful oft mec her wra]?e begeat

fromsi]? frean. Frynd sind on eor]?an

leofe lifgende, leger weardiaS,
35 bonne ic on uhtan ana gonge

under actreo geond ]?as eorSscrafu.

Peer ic sittan mot sumorlangne daeg,

bser ic wepan mseg mine wraecsi]?as,

earfo]?a fela, forj»on ic sefre ne mseg
40 ]?3ere modceare mlnre gerestan,

ne ealles ]?3es longaj>es ]?e mec on J?issum life begeat

A scyle geong mon wesan geomormod,

heard heortan ge}>oht, swylce habban sceal

bll]?e gebsero, eac ]?on breostceare,
45 sinsorga gedreag ; sy aet him sylfum gelong

eal his worulde wyn, sy ful wide fah

feorres folclondes, ]?aet mm freond siteS

under stanhli]?e storme behrimed,

wine werigmod, wsetre beflowen

on dreorsele. DreogeS se mm wine

micle modceare ; he gemon to oft

wynlicran wic. Wa biS J?am f>e sceal

of lango]?e leofes abidan.

9. THE HUSBAND'S MESSAGE

A piece of wood with letters carved on it is speaking to a woman. After
telling her its own history it says that it has been sent with a message by the
man with whom in former days she exchanged vows of love and constancy.
Forced by his enemies to flee from his native land, he has now won wealth and
position in a foreign country, and he sends the wooden messenger to exhort his
mistress to cross the sea as soon as ever the cuckoo sings, and share with him
his good fortune. On the wood are carved five rune-letters, which when re-
arranged, form the word 'sword.' By this the man shows his mistress that he

45. sinsorgna.

ix. THE HUSBAND'S MESSAGE 37

remembers the vows which once he swore on his sword, the most solemn way of
taking an oath ; (for another interpretation see note to 11. 66 ff. ).

We print here as one poem the two short pieces which immediately follow
Riddle No. 59 of the collection of A.-S. riddles in the codex known as the Exeter
Book. The first of these two pieces has always been regarded as a riddle and
printed as No. 61 of the collection. The second has hitherto been printed
separately under the title of the Husband's Message. But, as Blackburn pointed
out in \he Journal of Germanic Philology , iii. I (1900), the two pieces treat of
the same theme, are in fact one poem ; moreover the first does not end like the
other riddles by asking the reader to guess its meaning. The compiler of the
collection failed to notice that the two pieces are one poem. While the form of
the whole piece, especially the use of the first personal pronoun by an inanimate
object and the use of rune-letters to form an anagram, might perhaps justify its
inclusion in our selection of riddles (see No. 24), its tender feeling places it
alongside the Woman's Complaint, of which, indeed, it may have been intended
to be the complement.

Parts of the text, illegible or destroyed in the MS., have been conjecturally
restored by the present editor.

Ic waes be sonde, ssewealle neah,

set merefaro]?e, minum gewunade

frumsta]?ole fsest ; fea eenig waes

monna cynnes bset minne )?£er
5 on aneede eard beheolde,

ac mec uhtna gehwam y5 sio brune

lagufaeSme beleolc. Lyt ic wende

]?aet ic ear oj?}?e sI5 sefre sceolde

ofer meodu(bence) muSleas sprecan,
10 wordum wrixlan. paet is wundres dsel,

on sefan searolic, ]?am J>e swylc ne conn,

hu mec seaxes ord ond seo swtyre bond,

eorles ingejxmc, ond ord samod,

]?ingum ge]?ydan, ]?set ic wij? ]?e sceolde
15 for unc anum twam serendspraece

abeodan bealdlice, swa hit beorna ma,

uncre wordcwidas, widor ne msenden.

Nu ic onsundran ]>e secgan wille

[be] treocyn[ne]. Ic tudre aweox,
20 [ond] mec sel[ces] sceal ellor londes

setftan on siSas], sealte strea[mas

fus oferferan frean be hse]se.

Ful oft ic on bates [bosme] gesohte

]?ser mec mondryhten mm [onsende]

17. widdor.

38 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING

25 ofer heahhtffu ; com nu her cumen

on ceol]?ele, ond nu cunnan sceal

hu ]?u ymb modlufan mines frean

on hyge hycge. Ic gehatan dear

]?aet J>u J?ier tirfaeste treowe findest.
30 Hwaet, J>ec ]?onne biddan het, se J?isne beam agrof,

]?aet J»u sinchroden sylf gemunde

on gewitlocan wordbeotunga

]>e git on serdagum oft gespraecon,

J>enden git moston on meoduburgum
35 card weardigan, an lond bugan,

freondscype fremman. Hine f^hj>o adraf

of sigef>eode ; heht nu sylfa ]>e

lustum Isera^ )^aet J?u lagu drefde,

si)?J?an J?u gehyrde on hlij^es oran
4° galan geomorne geac on bearwe.

Ne laet ]>u }?ec si]?J>an si]?es getwsefan,

lade gelettan, lifgendne monn ;

ongin mere secan, maewes e]?el,

onsite ssenacan, J?3et J>u suS heonan
45 ofer merelade monnan findest,

J>ser se J>eoden is J>m on wenum.

Ne maeg him worulde willa (gelimpan)

mara on gemyndum, ]?aes )?e he me saegde,

)x)nne inc geunne alwaldend God
50 [])3et git] setsomne sij?}?an motan

secgum ond gesi]?um [sine brytnian,

njseglede beagas ; he genoh hafaS

fse/(t)an go[ldes. Frea sylfa cwaeS

J>aet he on] elj>eode e]?el healde,
55 fsegre fold[an, folgaS haebbe

wlanc]ra haslej>a, ]?eah ]?e her min wi[nedryhten]

nyde gebaeded nacan ut a}>rong,

ond on y]?a (be) gong [ana] sceolde

faran on flotweg, fort5si)?es georn
60 mengan merestreamas. Nu se mon hafaG

wean oferwunnen ; nis him wilna gad,

ne meara ne maSma, ne meododreama

25. heah hofu. 26. scealt. 38. kseram. 53. fedan.

X. WOLF AND EADWACER 39

senges ofer eor^an, eorlgestreona,
]?eodnes dohtor, gif he ]?in beneah,

65 ofer eald gebeot incer twega.

Gecyr(r)e ic setsomne S(igel), E(ad) geador,
EO(lh), W(en) ond D(aeg), a]?e benemnan
]?aet he ]?a wsere ond J?a winetreowe
be him lifgendum laestan wolde,

70 ]?e git on serdagum oft gesprsecon.

10. WOLF AND EADWACER

Again a woman is speaking ; her lover, an outlaw named Wolf, is, she says,
in danger of his life from her kinsmen ; her heart is filled with desire to see
him again. Then she seems to fling a taunt at another man, Eadwacer, with
whom apparently she is forced to live. The form of this little poem is interest-
ing, as it reveals a crude attempt to divide the whole into stanzas of irregular
length. The refrain ungelic(e] is us reminds us of the refrain in Deor (No. 3).
Each of 11. 4, 9, 13 begins with the name of the woman's lover. We seem to
have here an early example of verse-forms which centuries afterwards received
such varied development in the Icelandic Ij6<5ahattr. Till recently this poem,
which in the MS. immediately precedes the collection of A.-S. Riddles^ was
regarded as the first of the riddles and ascribed to Cynewulf.

Leodum is mmum swylce him mon lac gife :

WillaS hy hine a]?ecgan, gif he on J>reat cymeS.

Ungelic is us :

Wulf is on lege, ic on oj^erre ;
5 faest is J?3et eglond, fenne biworDen ;

sindon wselreowe weras J?ser on ige ;

willaS hy hine a]?ecgan, gif he on J»reat cymeS.

Ungelice is us :

Wulfes ic mines widlastum wenum /fogode
10 ]?onne hit wses renig weder ond ic reotugu sset,

J>onne mec se beaducafa bogum bilegde ;

waes me wyn to ]?on, waes me hwaej^re eac Ia5.

Wulf, mm Wulf, wena me ]?ine

seoce gedydon, ]?ine seldcymas,
15 murnende mod, ' nales meteliste.

Gehyrest J?u, Eadwacer ? Uncerne ear(m)ne hwelp

bireS Wulf to wuda ;

^

9. dogode.

40 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING

f>aet mon ea]?e tosliteS, ]?sette naifre gesomnad wses,
uncer giedd geador.

11. ELEGIAC AND MORALIZING PASSAGES IN

BEO WULF

Apart from the three passages here reproduced, the moralizing and elegiac
vein is not obtrusive in Beowulf, being confined to occasional pithy comments of
a line or two. The first of the passages treats of a favourite theme of ancient
and mediaeval writers, the progress to power of the arrogant, vainglorious ruler
and his ultimate fall. The second passage begins with an apostrophe to the
earth, in which the dragon's treasure is hidden, and goes on to dwell on the fate
of those who once possessed the treasure and are now passed away. The theme
and tone are those of the Wanderer and the Seafarer. The third selection is
interesting as presenting us with an example of a moral dilemma in a tragic
situation. The tragic note we have already seen in the incident of the old
Heathobard warrior who incites the young one to avenge his father on the Dane
who slew him and in the story of Finn (see Nos. 4 D and E).

A. THE ARROGANT RULER
11. 1724-57

Hrothgar is speaking in a moralizing vein to Beowulf.

Wundor is to secgan

hu mihtig God manna cynne

}?urh sidne sefan snyttru brytta<5,

card ond eorlscipe ; he ah ealra geweald.
5 Hwilum he on (h)lwan hworfan laiteS

monnes modge]?onc maeran cynnes,

seleS him on ej?le eorban wynne

to healdanne, hleoburh wera,

gedeS him swa gewealdene worolde dailas,
10 side rice, J>aet he his selfa ne maeg

his unsnyttrum ende ge)?encean ;

wunaS he on wiste, no hine wiht dwele<5

adl ne yldo, ne him inwitsorh

on sefan sweorceS, ne gesaca ohwser
15 ecghete eoweS, ac him eal worold

wendeS on willan ; he j?set wyrse ne con

oS ]?set him on innan oferhygda dsel

5. lufan IseteS hworfan ; hlisan S. 14. gesacu.

XI. ELEGIAC AND MORALIZING PASSAGES IN BEOWULF 41

weaxe<5 ond wridaS, J?onne se weard swefeS,

sawele hyrde — biS se slabp to fsest —
20 bisgum gebunden, bona swISe neah

se ]?e of flanbogan fyrenum sceoteS.

Ponne biS on hrej^re under helm drepen

biteran strsele, him bebeorgan ne con

worn wundorbebodum wergan gastes ;
25 ]?ince<5 him to lytel ]?£et he lange heold,

gytsaS gromhydig, nallas on gylp seleS

fse//e beagas, ond he ]?a forSgesceaft

forgyteS ond forgymeS, ]?8es ]?e him ser God sealde,

wuldres waldend, weorSmynda dsel.
2o Hit on endestaef eft gelimpeS

J?aet se lichoma Isene gedreoseS,

fsege gefealleS ; fehS 6]?er to,

se ]?e unmurnllce madmas dsele]?,

eorles sergestreon, egesan ne gymeS.
35 Bebeorh J?e Sone bealoniS, Beowulf leofa,

secg(a) betsta, ond ]?e ]?set selre geceos,

ece rsedas ; oferhyda ne gym,

msere cempa. Nu is )?ines msegnes blsed

ane hwile ; eft sona bi5
40 ]?aet ]?ec adl o53e ecg eafo]?es getwsefeS,
fyres feng, o5Se flodes wylm,
gripe nieces, oS3e gares fliht,

o55e atol yldo, oSSe eagena bearhtm

forsiteS ond forsworcecS ; semninga bi5
45 ]?set Sec, dryhtguma, dea5 oferswySeS.

B. BURIED TREASURE
11. 2231-66.

waes swylcra fela

in Sam eor5[hu]se sergestreon a,

swa hy on geardagum gumena nathwylc,

eormenlafe £e]?elan cynnes,

]?anchycgende >aer gehydde,

deore maSmas. Ealle hie deaS fornam

27. faedde.

42 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING

serran mgelum, ond se an Sa gen

leoda duguSe, se Sser lengest hwearf,

wearS winege5mor ; wende >aes ylcan,
55 ]?3et he lytel faec longgestreona

brucan moste. Beorh eallgearo

wunode on wonge waeterySum neah,

niwe be naesse, nearocraeftum fsest ;

)?£er on innan bser eorlgestreona
60 hringa hyrde h^rdwyrSne dael,

faettan goldes, fea worda cwseS :

' Heald ]?u nu, hruse, nu haeleS ne m^ston,

' eorla sehte. Hwaet, hyt 33r on 6e

' gode begeaton ; guSdeaS fornam,
65 'feorhbealo frecne, fyra gehwylcne

' leoda mmra )?ara 5e J?is (lif ) ofgeaf ;

'gesawon seledream. [Ic] nah hwa svveord wege,

'o33e f[eormie] fseted wsege,

' dryncfaet deore ; dug[u5] ellor s<roc.
70 { Sceal se hearda helm [hyrjsted golde

' fsetiim befeallen ; feormynd swefaS

' J>a Se beadogriman by wan sceoldon,

* ge swylce seo herepad, sio set hilde gebad

* ofer borda gebraec bite iren(n)a,

75 ' brosnaS sefter beorne. Ne maeg byrnan hring

' aefter wigfruman wide feran

' hseleSum be healfe ; n/'s hearpan wyn,

1 gomen gleobeames, ne god hafoc

4 geond ssel swingeS, ne se swifta mearh
80 * burhstede beateS. Bealocwealm hafaS

* fela feorhcynna f [or5] onsended.'

C. AN INEXPIABLE CRIME
11. 2444—62

Beowulf has been speaking of a sad event in the life of Hrethel, king of the
Geats, the father of Herebeald, Haethcen and Hygelac. Haethcen accidentally
killed Herebeald with an arrow (miste mercelses). This death is called feohleas

52. si. 60. hardwyrSne. 62. maeston.

69. seoc. 77. nass.

XII. A BAD CHARACTER 43

gefeoht, i.e. manslaughter for which no sum of money could compensate, a case
unprovided for by tribal law. Beowulf then goes on to moralize on the sad fate
of an old father whose son has to pay the penalty of death.

Swa biS geomorlic gomelum ceorle

to gebidanne J?set his byre ride

giong on galgan ; ]?onne he gyd wrece(S),
85 sarigne sang, ]?onne his sunu hangaS

hrefne to hroSre, ond he him help^ ne mseg,

eald ond infrod, ainige gefremman.

Symble biS gemyndgad morna gehwylce

eaforan ellorsiS; oSres ne gymeS
90 to gebidanne burgum in innan

yrfeweardas, jxmne se an hafaS

]?urh deaSes nyd dseda gefondad.

GesyhS sorhcearig on his suna bure

winsele westne, windgereste
95 reote berofene ; ridend swef^S,

haeleS in hoSman ; nis ]?£er hearpan sweg,

gomen in geardum, swylc t>abr iu wseron.

GewiteS }?onne on sealman, sorhleoS gaeleS

an aefter anum ; ]?uhte him call to rum,
oo wongas ond wicstede. Swa Wedra helm

aefter Herebealde heortan sorge

weallinde wseg, wihte ne meahte

on Sam feorhbonan fseghSe gebetan ;

no Sy ser he j^one heaSorinc hatian ne meahte
05 laSum dsedum, ]?eah him leof ne waes.

12. A BAD CHARACTER

The character and behaviour of an arrogant, spiteful man are described, and
his fate is contrasted with that of a good, kind-hearted man. These lines are
obviously written by an ecclesiastic as a warning example. The last part of the
poem, consisting of thirty-five lines, which describes the punishment after death
of the bad man and the heavenly reward of the good, is here omitted. The date
cannot be early.

Hwset, me frod wita on fyrndagum

saegde, snottor ar, sundorwundra fela ;

wordhord onwrah witgan larum

86. helpan. 95. swefaS. 3. onwearh.

44 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING

beorn boca gleaw, bodan aircwide,
5 ]?aet ic soSlice si'SSan meahte

ongitan bi J?am gealdre Godes agen beam,

wilgest on wlcum, ond ]?one wacran swa some

scyldum bescyredne on gescead witan.

Paet maeg aeghwylc mon ea]?e ge]?encan,
10 se Ipe hine (ne) IseteS on J?as laenan tid

amyrran his gemyndum modes gselsan,

ond on his daegrime druncen to rice.

Ponne monige beo<5 msej^elhergendra,

wlonce wigsmi]?as, wmburgum in,
15 sitta]? set symble, soSgied wrecaS,

wordum wrixlaS, witan fimdia)?,

hwylc aescstede inne in raecede

mid werum wunige ; }?onne win hweteS

beornes breostsefan, breahtm stigeS,
20 cirm on cor]?re, cwide scralleta]?

missenlice. Swa beo)? modsefan

d^lum gedseled, sindon dryhtguman

ungelice. Sum on oferhygdo

)?rymme ]?ringe(3), ]?rinte5 him in innan
25 ungemedemad mod ; sindan to monige ]?3et.

BiS j?aet aef]?onca eal gefylled

feondes fligepllum, facensearwum ;

breodaS he ond bselceS, b65 his sylfes

swi]?or micle ]?onne se sella mon,
^o }>enceS J>3et his wise welhwam ]?ince

eal unforcu]?. Bi}? ]?aes 6]?er swice,

J>onne he ]?33S facnes fintan sceawaS ;

wrence]? he ond blence]?, worn ge]?ence}>

hinderhoca, hygegar leteS,
35 scurum sceote]?, he ]?a scylde ne wat

fseh]?e gefremede, feoh]? his betran

eorl fore aefstum, laete]? inwitflan

brecan )?one burgweal J?e him bebead Meotud,

J>33t he ]?aet wigsteal wergan sceolde.
40 Site]? symbelwlonc, searwum IseteS,

wine geweeged, word ut faran,

10. ne S. 19. breahtem. 22. dalum.

XIII. THE FATES OF MEN 45

brsefte ]?ringan brymme gebyrmed,

sefestum onaeled, oferhygda ful,

ni]?um, nearowrencum. Nu }>u cunnan meaht,
45 gif bu byslicne ]?egn gemittest

wunian in wicum ; wite ]?e be bissum

feawum forSspellum baet baet bib feondes beam,

flsesce bifongen ; hafaS frsete Hf

grundfusne gaest, Gode orfeorme,
50 wuldorcyninge. ......

13. THE FATES OF MEN

In this poem, with which may be compared portions of the Gifts of Men
(No. 21 B), are described the various fortunes which await young men when they
leave their parents and go out into the world. There are several pictures of
striking vividness, e.g. those of the malefactor on the gallows and of the victim
of strong drink. As in the case of the Wanderer and the Seafarer, the first
sixty lines or so are superior in quality to the latter part of the poem, which may
be a later addition.

Ful oft bset gegongeS mid Codes meahtum

bsette wer ond wif in woruld cennaS

beam mid gebyrdum ond mid bleom gyrwaS,

tew/a]? ond tse<rab, oj»]?3et seo tid cymecS,
5 gegseS gearrimum, J?aet ]?a geongan leomu,

liffaestan leo)?ti, geloden weorbaS.

FergaS swa ond fedaS fseder ond modor,

giefaS ond gierwa]? ; God ana wat

hwset him weaxendum winter bringaS.
10 Sumum bget gegongeS on geoguSfeore

J?set se endestaef earfeS msegum,

wealic weorbeS ; sceal hine wulf etan,

bar hseSstapa ; hinsib bonne

m5dor bimurneS ; ne bi<5 swylc monnes geweald.
1 5 Sumne sceal hunger ahjpban, sumne sceal hreoh fordrifan,

sumne sceal gar agetan, sumne gu5 abreotan.

Sum sceal leomena leas lifes neotan,

folmum aetfeohtan, sum on feSe lef,

4. tennaj) ond taetaj). n. earfeSmaecgum. 15. ahij>an.

46 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING

seonobennum seoc, sar cwanian,
20 murnan meotudgesceaft, mode gebysgad.

Sum sceal on holte of hean beame

fij?erleas feallan, bi5 on flihte se]?eah,

laceS on lyfte, oj?]?£et hingre ne biS

w^stm wudubeames ; jxmne he on wyrtruman
25 sigeS sworcenfer(h)S sawle bireafod,

fealle]? on foldan, feor(h)S bij? on stye.

Sum sceal on fe)?e on feorwegas

nyde gongan ond his nest beran,

tredan uriglast etyeodigra
30 frecne foldan ; ah he feormendra

lyt lifgendra ; laS bij? seghwabr

fore his wonsceaftum wineleas haele.

Sum sceal on geapum galgan ridan,

seomian set swylte, o]?]?aet sawlhord,
35 bancofa blodig, abrocen weorj?e5,

]?3er him hrefn nimeS heafodsyne,

sliteS salwigpad saw^lleasne ;

no]?er he }>y facne mseg folmum biwergan,

la]?um lyftsceaj^an ; bi]? his Hf scaecen,
40 ond he feleleas, feores orwena,

blac on beame, bideS wyrde

bewegen waelmiste ; biS him werig noma.

Sum(ne) on bsele sceal brond

fretan frecne Hg fsegne monnan,
45 ]?ser him Hfgedal lungre weorSeS,

read re]?e gled ; reoteS meowle,

seo hyre beam gesihS brondas

Sumum meces ecg on meodubence

yrrum ealowosan ealdor o]?]?ringe(S,
50 were winsadum ; biS £er his worda to hraed.

Sum sceal on beore ]?urh byreles hond,

meodugal maecga, ]?onne he gemet ne con

gemearcian his mu]?e mode sine,

ac sceal ful earmlice ealdre linnan,
55 dreogan dryhtenbealo dreamum biscyred,

23. lungre 5. , lengre MS. 24. western. 37. sawelleasne.

43. brond ajjecgan S, , brondas j>encan MS. 47. J^ecgan S.t jjeccan MS.

XIII. THE FATES OF MEN 47

ond hine to sylfcwale secgas nemnaS,

iruenaS mid mu]?e meodugales gedrinc.

Sum sceal on geogu]?e mid Codes meahtum

his earfoSsij? ealne forspildan,
60 ond on yldo eft eadig weor]?an,

wunian wyndagum, ond welan ]?icgan,

magmas ond meoduful mgegburge on,

]?aes Ipe senig flra masge ford" gehealdan.

Swa missenlice meahtig Dryhten
65 geond eor]?an sceat eallum dseleS,

scyreS ond scrifeS ond gesceapo healdeS :

sumum eadwelan, sumum earfe)?a d^el,

sumum geogo}?e glaed, sumum gu]?e bleed,

gewealdenne wigplegan, sumum wyrp O\>]>Q scyte,
70 torhtlicne tir, sumum tsefle craeft,

bleobordes gebregd ; sume boceras

weor]?a3 wisfseste. Sumum wundorgiefw

J?urh goldsmi]?e gearwad weor]?eS ;

ful oft he gehyrdeS ond gehyrsteS wel
75 brytencyninges beorn, ond he him brad syleS

lond to leane ; he hit on lust ]?ige5.

Sum sceal on heape hsele]?uni cweman,

blissian set beore bencsittendum,

J>aer bi|> drincendra dream se micla.
80 Sum sceal mid hearpan set his hlafordes

fotum sittan, feoh ]?icgan,

ond a snellice snere wrsestan,

Isetan scralle(t)tan ; (s)^ear^/e]?e(r) hleapeS,

naegl neome^ende ; bi]? him neod micel.
85 Sum sceal wildne fugel wloncne atemian,

heafoc on honda, oj?]?set seo heoroswealwe

wynsum weorJ>eS ; dej? he wyrplas on,

fede]? swa on feterum fi]?rum dealne,

\{zre}> lyftswiftne lytlum gieflum,
90 o]?]?aet se waslisca wsedum ond dasdum

his setgiefan eaSmod weorJ?eS,

ond to hagostealdes honda gelsered.

63. forh. 70. tiir. 72. -giele.

83. sceardfej>er S. ; the MS. has geg.ro se J>e. 84. neome cende. 89. lepe)?.

48 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING

Swa wrsetlice weoroda
geond middangeard monna crseftas
95 sceop ond scyrede, ond gesceapo ferede
seghwylcum on eor]?an eormencynnes.
For]?on him nu ealles jxrnc ^ghwa secge,
J>e he fore his miltsum monnum scrifeS.

93. weoroda Nergend S., weorod anes god MS.

III. NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

In this section we have limited our choice to Beowulf , the Battle of Brunan-
burh, and the Baffle of Mai don, as these are almost the only native poems of
narration not adapted from Latin works or dealing with subjects taken from the
Bible. A fine specimen of a narrative poem on a biblical theme is Exodus
(No. 19) ; another is Judith. Some of the A.-S. Riddles (No. 22) contain
striking descriptions of natural phenomena. Other good descriptive passages
occur in the Phoenix ^ the Panther, etc.

14. BEOWULF

A. THE SWIMMING-MATCH
11. 499-589

Beowulf and his little band of followers have been admitted into King
Hrothgar's hall and have taken their seats at the mead-bench. Unferth, the
court orator and wit, is jealous of the attention shown to Beowulf, and tries to
belittle his prowess. He makes a slighting mention of Beowulfs famous
swimming-match with Breca, saying that Breca was the victor. Stung by the
taunt, Beowulf describes the match in detail and ends his speech with a crushing
attack on Unferth.

HunferS ma]?elode, Ecglafes beam,
Ipe set fotum saet frean Scyldinga,
onband beadurune — wses him Beowulfes sIS,
modges merefaran, micel sefjmnca,
5 forjxm ]?e he ne u]?e bggt senig 65er man
sefre mserSa ]?on ma middangeardes
gehedde under heofenum J>onne he sylfa — :
* Eart ]?u se Beowulf, se J>e wiS Brecan wunne,
' on sidne sse ymb sund flite,
i o ' Seer git for wlence wada cunnedon
' ond for dolgilpe on deop waeter
1 aldrum ne]?don ? Ne inc senig mon,

49 E

5O NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

' ne leof ne laS, belean mihte

' sorhfullne sIS, ]?a git on sund reon.

1 5 ' Pair git eagorstream earmum J?ehton,
' mabton merestrieta, mundum brugdon,
' glidon ofer garsecg ; geofon y]mm weol
' (J?urh) wintrys wylm. Git on wseteres seht
' seofon niht swuncon ; he ]?e set sunde oferflat,

20 ' hsefde mare maegen. Pa hine on morgentid

* on Hea]?o-R^m«s holm up setbser ;
'Sonon he gesohte swsesne eSel,

' leof his leodum, lond Brondinga,

'freoSoburh faegere, j^ser he folc ahte,
25 * burh ond beagas. Beot eal wiS ]?e

' sunu Beanstanes soSe gelseste.

{ Donne wene ic to ]?e wyrsan gej'ingej,

' 5eah }>u heaSorsesa gehwa^r dohte,

' grimre guSe, gif >u Grendles dearst
30 ' nihtlongne fyrst nean bidan.'

Beowulf maj>elode, beam Ecg]?eowes :

* Hwset ! J?u worn fela, wine mm HunferS,
'beore druncen, ymb Brecan spraece,

' saegdest from his sI5e. S63 ic talige
35 ']?3et ic merestrengo maran ahte,

' earfe]?o on y)?um, Sonne aenig 6]?er man.

4 Wit J>aet gecwsedon cnihtwesende

' ond gebeotedon — wabron begen )?a git

' on geogoSfeore — ]?aet wit on garsecg ut
40 ' aldrum neSdon, ond ]?s3t geaefndon swa.

* Haefdon swurd nacod, ]?a wit on sund reon,
' heard on handa ; wit unc wiS hronfixas

' werian ]?6hton. No he wiht fram me
' flodyj^um feor fleotan meahte
45 'hra]?or on holme; no ic fram him wolde.
' Da wit setsomne on sse wseron
4 fif nihta fyrst o]> ]?aet unc flod todraf,
1 wado weallende, wedera cealdost,
' nipende niht, ond nor]?an wind
' heaSogrim onhwearf; hreo wasron y]?a.

21. heajjoraemes. 27. ge])ingea. 50. ondhwearf.

XIV. BEOWULF 51

'Wses merefixa mod onhrered,

' ]?aer me wiS la<5um Hcsyrce mm

1 heard hondlocen helpe gefremede,

1 beadohrsegl broden on breostum laeg,
55 'golde gegyrwed. Me to grunde teah

{fah feondscaSa, fssste haefde

' grim on grape ; hwse]?re me gyfe]?e wear<5

1 )?3et ic aglsecan orde genehte,

' hildebille ; heaj?orses fornam
60 ' mihtig meredeor J?urh mine hand.

' Swa mec gelome laSgeteonan

* ]?reatedon Dearie ; ic him }?enode

' deoran sweorde, swa hit gedefe wses.
' Naes hie Ssere fylle gefean hsefdon,
65 * manfordJedlan, ]?aet hie me ]?egon ;
1 symbel ymbsseton saegrunde neah,

* ac on mergenne mecum wunde

* be ySlafe uppe Isegon,

4 sweo(r)dum aswefede, ]?sst syS)?an na
70 ' ymb brontne ford1 brimliSende
' lade ne letton. Leoht eastan com,
' beorht beacen Codes ; brimu sw^redon,
' J?3et ic ssensessas geseon mihte,

* windige weallas. Wyrd oft nere<5

75 'unfsegne eorl, J^onne his ellen deah.

Hwae^ere me gesselde ]?&st ic mid sweorde ofsloh
niceras nigene ; no ic on niht gefraegn
( under heofones hwealf heardran feohtan,

* ne on egstreamum earmran mannon ;
So ' hw^]?ere ic fara feng feore gedigde,

' sl]?es werig. Da mec sae oj>baer,
1 flod sefter faroSe, on Finna land,
1 wtfdu weallendu. No ic wiht fram ]?e
' swylcra searoniSa secgan hyrde,
85 ' billa brogan. Breca nsefre git
' set heaSolace, ne gehwae]?er incer,
1 swa deorlice dsed gefremede
' fagum sweordum — no ic ]?ass (fela) gylpe —

70. forS S. ; ford MS. 72. swa)>redon. 80. hwa]>ere. 83. wudu.

5 2 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

* ]?eah 5u binum broftrum to banan wurde,
9° ' heafodmsegum ; bses bu in helle scealt
' werhSo dreogan, beah bin wit duge.'

B. THE FIGHT WITH GRENDEL
11. 710-823

It is night-time, the feasting is over, Hrothgar and his Danes have left the
royal hall. Beowulf remains behind waiting for the monster's coming ; his
small band of followers lie around him sleeping ; he alone is awake. Grendel
approaches, breaks in the door of the hall and enters. Beowulf seizes him by
the arm and a terrific struggle takes place.

Da com of more under misthleobum

Grendel gongan, Godes yrre baer ;

mynte se manscaSa manna cynnes
95 sumne besyrwan in sele bam hean.

Wod under wolcnum to bass be he wmreced,

goldsele gumena, gearwost wisse

faettum fahne ; ne waes J>set forma sIS

baet he Hrobgares ham gesohte,
ioo nsefre he on aldordagum £er ne sibSan

heardran haele healSegnas fand.

Com }?a to recede rinc siSian

dreamum bedseled. Duru sona onarn

fyrbendum fsest, sy]?San he hire folmum hran ;
105 onbrsed J?a bealohydig, Sa he gebolgen waes,

recedes muban. Rabe aefter bon

on fagne flor feond treddode,

code yrremod ; him of eagum stod

ligge gelicost leoht unfaeger.
1 10 Geseah he in recede rinca manige,

swefan sibbegedriht samod setgaedere,

magorinca heap. Pa his mod ahlog ;

mynte bast he geda^lde ser J?on daeg cwome,

atol aglseca, anra gehwylces
115 Hf wi5 lice, ba him alumpen wass

wistfylle wen. Ne waes [baet wy]rd ba gen

baet he ma moste manna cynnes

Sicgean ofer ba niht. prySswyS beheold,

XIV. BEOWULF 53

mabg Higelaces, hu se manscaSa
120 under faergripum gefaran wolde.

Ne ]?aet se aglseca yldan ]?ohte,

ac he gefeng hratte forman siSe

slaipendne rinc, slat unwearnum,

bat banlocan, blod edrum dranc,
125 synsnsedum swealh ; sona haefde

unlyfigendes eal gefeormod,

fet ond folma. ForS near aetstop,

nam ]?a mid handa higej?ihtigne

rinc on rseste, raehte ^gean(es)
13° feond mid folme ; he onfeng hra]?e

inwit]?ancum ond wiS earm gesset.

Sona ]?£et onfunde fyrena hyrde

]?set he ne mette middangeardes,

eor]?an sceata, on elran men
J35 mundgripe maran; he on mode wearS

forht on ferhSe, no ]?y ser fram meahte ;

hyge waes him hinfus, wolde on heolster fleon,

secan deofla gedrseg ; ne waes his drohtoS ]?ser

swylce he on ealderdagum £er gemette.
I4° Gemunde ]?a se wod(g)a mseg Higelaces

xfensprsece, uplang astod

ond him faeste wiSfeng. Fingras burston ;

eoten waes utweard, eorl fur]mr stop.

Mynte se maera, [}>2er] he meahte swa,
J45 wide gewindan ond on weg ]?anon

fleon on fenhopu ; wiste his fingra geweald

on grames grapum. [Pset] waes geocor sIS

J?aet se hearmsca]?a to Heorute ateah.

Dryhtsele dynede, Denum eallum wearS,
I5° ceasterbuendum, cenra gehwylcum,

eorlum ealuscer/en. Yrre waeron begen

re)?e renweardas ; reced hlynsode.

Pa waes wundor micel J>aet se winsele

wiShaefde hea]?odeorum, )?aet he on hrusan ne feol,
X55 faeger fold(an) bold, ac he ]?3es faeste waes

innan ond utan irenbendum,

129. ongean. 140. se goda. 145, widre. 151. ealuscerwen.

54 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

searo]?oncum besmi]x)d. Peer fram sylle abeag

medubenc monig mine gefrsege

golde geregnad, J?£er ]?a graman wunnon.
1 60 pses ne wendon ear witan Scyldinga

]?set hit a mid gemete manna senig,

^etlic ond banfag, tobrecan meahte,

listum tolucan, nymj?e liges fae]?m

swulge on swajmle. Sweg up astag
165 mwe geneahhe; NorS-Denum stod

atelic egesa anra gehwylcum

]?ara J>e of wealle wop gehyrdon,

gryreleoS galan Codes andsacan,

sigeleasne sang, sar wanigean
170 helle haefton. Heold hine to faeste

se ]?e manna waes maegene strengest

on ]?sem dsege J?ysses Hfes ;

nolde eorla hleo senige J'inga

]?one cwealmcuman cwicne forlsetan,
175 ne his lifdagas leoda senigum

nytte tealde. PBSI genehost brsegd

eorl Beowulfes ealde lafe,

wolde freadrihtnes feorh ealgian,

mseres ]?eodnes, Sser hie meahton swa ;
1 80 hie ]?3st ne wiston, ]?a hie gewin drugon,

heardhicgende hildemecgas,

ond on healfa gehwone heawan J?6hton,

sawle secan, (J>8et) ]?one synscaSan

senig ofer eor]?an irenna cyst,
185 guSbilla nan, gretan nolde,

ac he sigewsepnum forsworen hsefde,

ecga gehwylcre. Scolde his aldorgedal

on Ssem daege )?ysses Hfes

earmlic wurSan, ond se ellorgast
190 on feonda geweald feor siSian.

Da J>83t onfunde se ]?e fela aeror

modes myrSe manna cynne

fyrene gefremede — he (waes) fag wiS God —

)?83t him se lichoma Isestan nolde,

162. hetlic.

XIV. BEOWULF 55

195 ac hine se modega mseg Hygelaces

haefde be honda ; waes gehwae]?er oSrum

lifigende laS. Licsar gebad

atol seglaeca; him on eaxle wear<5

syndolh sweotol ; seonowe onsprungon,
200 burston banlocan. Beowulfe wearS

guShreS gyfe]?e ; scolde Grendel ]?onan

feorhseoc fleon under fenhleoSu,

secean wynleas wic ; wiste ]?e geornor

]?aet his aldres waes ende gegongen,
205 dogera daegrim.

C. THE HAUNTS OF THE OGRES
11. 1345-76

King Hrothgar tells Beowulf about Grendel and his dam.

Ic ]?set londbuend, leode mine,

selersedende, secgan hyrde

]?set hie gesawon swylce twegen

micle mearcstapan moras healdan,
210 ellorgaestas; Ssera 65er waes,

J?aes ]?e hie gewislicost gewitan meahton,

idese onlicn^s ; 6Ser earmsceapen

on weres waestmum wrseclastas trsed,

naefne he waes mara ]?onne senig man 65er ;
215 ]?one on geardagum Grendel nemdo[n]

foldbuende ; no hie faeder cunnon,

hwse]?er him senig waes aer acenned

dyrnra gasta. Hie dygel lond

warigeaS, wulfhleoj>u, windige naessas,
220 frecne fengelad, Saer fyrgenstream

under naessa genipu nijper gewiteS,

flod under foldan. Nis ]?aet feor heonon

milgemearces J?aet se mere standeft,

ofer ]?aem hongiaS hrin(g)de bearwas,
225 wudu wyrtum faest waeter oferhelmaS.

Pser maeg nihta gehwaem niSwundor seon,

fyr on flode ; no J?aes frod leofaS

212. onlic noes.

56 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

gumena bearna >set (he) >one grund wite.

Deah J?e hseSstapa hundum geswenced,
230 heorot hornum trum, holtwudu sece,

feorran geflymed, ser he feorh seleS,

aldor on ofre, abr he in wille

hafelan (hydan). Nis )?aet heoru stow ;

]?onon ySgeblond up astlgeS
235 won to wolcnum, ]?onne wind styrej>

laS gewidru, o<5 ]?aet lyft drysmaj>,

roderas reotaS.

D. THE VISIT TO THE POOL OF MONSTERS

11. 1399-1441

Pa W3es HroSgare hors gebabted,
wicg wundenfeax ; wisa fengel
240 geatolic gen(g)de ; gumfe]?aistop
lindhsebbendra. Lastas wseron
sefter waldswaj^um wide gesyne,
gang ofer grundas, (]?xr heo) gegnum for
ofer myrcan mor, magof>egna bser
245 ]?one selestan sawolleasne

]?ara J>e mid HroSgare ham eahtode.
Ofereode ]?a 8eJ>elinga beam
steap stanhliSo, stige nearwe,
enge anpaSas, uncuS gelad,
250 neowle nsessas, nicorhusa fela;
he feara sum beforan gengde

wisra monna wong sceawian,

o]? ]?8et he fseringa fyrgenbeamas

ofer harne stan hleonian funde,
255 wynleasne wudu ; wseter under stod

dreorig ond gedrefed. Denum eallum waes,

winum Scyldinga, weorce on mode

to gej?olianne, Segne monegum,

oncyS eorla gehwsem, syS]?an ^Escheres
260 on ]?am holmclife hafelan metton.

Flod blode weol — folc to ssegon —

hatan heolfre. Horn stundum song

XIV. BEOWULF 57

fuslic f [yrd]leo<5. Fe]?a eal gesaet.

Gesawon Sa asfter wsetere wyrmcynnes fela,
265 sellice saMracan, sund cunnian,

swylce on nseshleoSum nicras licgean,

Sa on undernmael oft bewitigaS

sorhfulne siS on seglrade,

wyrmas ond wildeor ; hie on weg hruron
270 bitere ond gebolgne, bearhtm ongeaton,

guShorn galan. Sumne Geata leod

of flanbogan f cores getwaifde,

ySgewinnes, j?aet him on aldre stod

herestreel hearda ; he on holme waes
275 sundes ]?e ssenra, 3e hyne swylt fornam;

hrae]?e wearS on ySum mid eoferspreotum

heorohocyhtum hearde genearwod,

niSa genseged, ond on nses togen,

wundorlic wsegbora ; weras sceawedon
280 gryrelicne gist.

E. BEOWULF'S FIGHT WITH THE DRAGON

11. 2538-2709

A fire -breathing dragon is devastating the land of the Geats by night in
revenge for a theft from the treasure-hoard of which it is the guardian. Beowulf,
now king of the Geats and an old man, resolves to attack the dragon in its den
under the hillside. With the help of his faithful henchman Wiglaf he succeeds
in killing it, but dies himself shortly afterwards. Fights with dragons are
familiar subjects in the mythology of the Aryan and other peoples.

Aras Sa bi ronde rof oretta,

heard under helme ; hiorosercean baer

under stancleofu, strengo getruwode

anes mannes ; ne biS swylc earges sI8.
285 Geseah Sa be wealle se Se worna fela,

gumcystum god, guSa gedigde,

hildehlemma, Jxmne hnitan feSan,

sto(n)dan stanbogan, stream ut ]?onan

brecan of beorge ; waes ]?sere burnan wselm
290 heaSofyrum hat; ne meahte horde neah

unbyrnende senige hwile

58 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

deor gedygan for dracan lege.

Let Sa of breostum, <5a he gebolgen waes,

Weder-Geata leod, word ut faran ;
295 stearcheort styrmde, stefn in becom

heaSotorht hlynnan under harne stan.

Hete waes onhrered ; hordweard oncmow

mannes reorde ; naes Sser mara fyrst

freo<5<? to friclan. From aerest cwom
300 orut> aglsecean ut of stane,

hat hildeswat ; hruse dynede,

born under beorge ; bordrand onswaf

wiS Sam gryregieste Geata dryhten.

Da waes hringbogan heorte gefysed
305 saecce to secean. Sweord ssr gebrsed

god guScyning, gomele lafe

ecgum un^law : seghwasSrum waes

bealohycgendra broga fram oSrum.

StI5m5d gestod wi5 steapne rond
310 winia bealdor, 5a se wyrm gebeah

snude tosomne ; he on searwum bad.

Gewat Sa byrnende gebogen scriSan,

to gesci/e scyndan ; scyld wel gebearg

life ond lice laessan hwile
315 mserum ]?eodne J>onne his myne sohte,

Saer he ]>y fyrste forman dogore

wealdan moste ; swa him wyrd ne gescraf

hreS aet hilde. Hond up abraed

Geata dryhten, gryrefahne sloh
320 Incge(s) lafe, J?aet sio ecg gewac

brun on bane, bat unswISor
J>onne his Siodcyning J>earfe haefde
bysigum gebaeded. Pa waes beorges weard
aefter heaSuswenge on hreoum mode,
225 wearp waelfyre; wide sprungon
hildeleoman ; hreSsigora ne gealp
goldwine Geata ; guSbill geswac
nacod aet m<5e, swa hyt no sceolde,

292. deop. 299. freode. 302. biorn.

305. seceanne. 307. unglaw. 313. g scipe.

XIV. BEOWULF 59

Iren aergod. Ne wses ]?aet eSe sIS,

330 ]?aet se maera maga EcgSeowes
grundwong ]xme ofgyfan wolde ;
sceolde (ofer) willan wic eardian
elles hwergen ; swa sceal seghwylc mon
alsetan Isendagas. Naes Sa long to Son

335 ]?aet Sa aglaecean hy eft gemetton ;

hyrte hyne hordweard, hreSer seSme weoll
niwan stefne ; nearo Srowode
fyre befongen se Se ser folce weold.
Nealles him on heape handgesteallan,

340 aeSelinga beam, ymbe gestodon
hildecystum, ac hy on holt bugon
ealdre burgan. Hiora in anum weoll
sefa wiS sorgum ; sibb sefre ne mseg
wiht onwendan J?am Se wel ]?enceS.

345 Wiglaf wses haten Weoxstanes sunu,
leoflic lindwiga, leod Scylfinga,
maeg ^Elf heres ; geseah his mondryhten
under heregriman hat frowian.
Gemunde Sa Sa are ]?e he him ser forgeaf,

350 wicstede weligne Wsegmundinga,

folcrihta gehwylc, swa his faeder ahte ;
ne mihte Sa forhabban, hond rond gefeng,
geolwe linde, gomel swyrd geteah ;
]?3et wses mid eldum Eanmundes laf,

355 suna Ohtere(s). . . .

• • • •

Wod ]?a ]?urh ]?one wselrec, wigheafolan baer

frean on fultum, fea worda cwaeS :

* Leofa Biowulf, l^est call tela,

' swa Su on geoguSfeore geara gecwsede

360 ' }?3et Su ne alaete be Se lifigendum

{ dom gedreosan ; scealt nu dsedum rof,
' asSeling anhydig, ealle msegene
' feorh ealgian ; ic Se fullsestu.'

^Efter Sam wordum wyrm yrre cwom,

365 atol inwitgsest, 6Sre siSe,

fyrwylmum fah, fionda niospan],

60 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

laSra manna; HgySum forborn
bord wi3 rond(e) ; byrne ne meahte
geongum garwigan geoce gefremman,
370 ac se maga geonga under his mseges scyld
elne geeode, ]?a his agen w[ses]
gledum forgrunden. Pa gen guScyning
mfserSa] gemunde, maegenstrengo sloh
hildebille, }?set hyt on heafolan stod
375 m]?e genyded ; Naegling forbaerst,
geswac aet saecce sweord Biowulfes,
gomol ond grsegmsel. Him J?aet gifeSe ne waes
)?aet him irenna ecge mihton
helpan aet hilde ; waes sio hond to strong,
380 se Se meca gehwane mine gefrsege

swenge ofersohte, J>onne he to saecce baer
wsepen wund(r)um heard ; naes him wihte Se sel.

Pa waes ]?eodsceaSa J>riddan siSe,
frecne fyrdraca, fsehSa gemyndig,
385 raesde on Sone rofan, ]?a him rum ageald.
hat ond heatfogrim, heals ealne ymbefeng
biteran banum ; he geblodegod wearS
sawuldriore ; swat ySum weoll.

Da ic set ]?earfe (gefraegn) J?eodcyninges
390 andlongne eorl ellen cySan,

craeft ond cenSu, swa him gecynde waes ;
ne hedde he ]?aes heafolan, ac sio hand gebarn
modiges mannes, ]?aer he his mseges healp
J»aet he ]?one niSgsest nioSor hwene sloh,
395 secg on searwum, ]?aet 5aet sweord gedeaf
fah ond faeted ; ]>d Saet fyr ongon
sweSrian sySSan. Pa gen sylf cyning
geweold his gewitte, wselseax gebrsed
biter ond beaduscearp, j?aet he on byrnan waeg ;
400 forwrat Wedra helm wyrm on middan, •<
feond gefyld^ ; ferh ellen wraec,
ond hi hyne }?a begen abroten haefdon,
sibaeSelingas ; swylc sceolde secg wesan,
}>egn aet tfearfe.

393. maegenes. 396. ]>aet. 398. wasllseaxe. 401. gefyldan.

XIV. BEOWULF 6 I

F. BEOWULF'S OBSEQUIES
I 11. 3i37~3i77

The body of the dragon has been pushed over the cliff into the sea ; the
treasure has been brought out of the cave ; the funeral pile is built and Beowulf s
body placed on it, surrounded with weapons, armour and ornaments. The fire
is lighted and the hero's widow breaks into lamentations and forebodings. Then
the Geat warriors build a grave-mound and having placed in it ornaments and
weapons, they ride round the barrow chanting the praises of their dead king.

405 Him Sa gegiredan Geata leode

ad on eorSan unwaclicne,

helm(um) beh<?ng0n, hildebordum,

beorhtum byrnum, swa he bena wses.

Alegdon <5a tomiddes mserne ]?eoden,
410 hseleS hiofende hlaford leofne.

Ongunnon }?a on beorge bselfyra meest

wigend weccan ; wud[u]rec astah

sweart ofer swi<?5ole, swogende le^

wope bewunden — windblond gelaeg —
415 oS J>aet he Sa banhus gebrocen hsefde,

hat on hreSre. Higum unrote

modceare msendon mondryhtnes cw[e]alm ;

swylce giomorgyd [sio geo]meowle

[aefter Biowulfe bjundenheorde
420 [song] sorgcearig, sae^v/e geneahhe

]?3et hio hyre [hearmdajgas hearde on[dr]ede,

wselfylla wom, [wigenjdes egesan,

hy(n)5o [ond] h[aeft]nyd ; heofon rece swe[a]lg.

Geworhton Sa Wedra leode
42S hl[aew] on (holmh)li5e, se wses heah ond brad,

[waeJgHSendum wide g[e]syne,

ond betimbredon on tyn dagum

beadurofes been ; bronda lafe

wealle beworhton, swa hyt weorSHcost
430 foresnotre men findan mihton.

Hi on beorg dydon beg ond siglu,

call swylce hyrsta swylce on horde ser

4

407. behongen. 413. swicftole ; let.

420. saelSe. 422. wonn. 425. on holmhliSe S.t on li^e MS.

62

NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

niShedige men genumen haefdon ;

forleton eorla gestreon : eorftan healdan,
435 gold on greote, >ser hit nu gen lifaS

eldum swa unnyt swa hi[t sero]r waes.
Pa ymbe hlsew riodan hildedeore,

ae>elinga [b]ea[r]n ealra twelfe ;

woldon [hie] cwISan, kyning msenan,
44° wordgyd wrecan ond ymb w[er] sprecan ;

eahtodan eorlscipe ond his ellenweorc

duguftum demdon. Swa hit gedeffe] biS

J>aet mon his winedryhten wordum herge,

ferhSum freoge, J?onne he for5 scile,
445 of Hchaman [lysed] weorSan.

Swa begnornodon Geata leode

hlafordes [hryjre, heorSgeneatas,

cwsedon }>aet he waere wyruldcyning(a),

manna mildust ond mon[Sw]£erust,
450 leodum HSost ond lofgeornost.

G. HERO-LAYS IN THE MAKING

*

11.853-874

This passage, which immediately precedes the account of Sigemund and
Fitela (see No. 4 B), is interesting as showing that the custom of singing lays
of heroes was not confined to the banqueting-hall. A body of mounted Danes,
gathered from far and wide on learning the news of the mighty struggle between
Beowulf and Grendel in Heorot, are returning from a visit to the mysterious
mere into which the wounded Grendel has plunged. The Beowulf poet may
well have taken part himself in such an outing.

Panon eft gewiton ealdgesISas,
swylce geong manig, of gomenwaj»e,
fram mere modge, mearum ridan,
beornas on blancum. Dser waes Beowulfes
455 mserSo gemsened; monig oft gecwseS
]?aette suS ne norS be ssem tweonum
ofer eormengrund 6]?er nsenig
under swegles begong selra nsere
rondhaebbendra, rices wyrSra.

*

438. twelfa.

XIV. BEOWULF 63

460 Ne hie hum winedrihten wiht ne logon,
glsedne HroSgar, ac )?aet wses god cyning.

Hwilum heaborofe hleapan leton,
on geflit faran, fealwe mearas,
Sser him foldwegas fsegere buhton,

465 cystum cuSe. Hwilum cyninges ]?egn,
guma gilphlaeden, gidda gemyndig,
se <5e ealfela ealdgesegena
worn gemunde, word 6}?er fand
soSe gebunden. Secg eft ongan

470 sIS Beowulfes snyttrum styrian
ond on sped wrecan spel gerade,
wordum wrixlan.

H. SCENES IN HEOROT

The scenes in the banqueting-hall described in Beowulf may be regarded as
taken by the poet from his own society, rather than as traditional descriptions
handed down by gleemen. In any case, it is unlikely that social conditions
and customs changed much in a Germanic society uninfluenced by Roman
culture.

1. Beowulf and his men in Heorot (11. 6 1 1-630)

Dser waes haelejra hleahtor, hlyn swynsode,

word wseron wynsume. Eode Wealhbeow for5,
475 cwen HroSgares, cynna gemyndig ;

grette goldhroden guman on healle,

ond ]?a freolic wif ful gesealde

serest East-Dena ej>elwearde,

bsed hine bliSne set ]?3ere beor]?ege,
480 leodum leofne ; he on lust ge]?eah

symbel ond seleful, sigerof kyning.

Ymbeode J>a ides Helminga

dugu^e ond geogo}?e dsel seghwylcne,

sincfato sealde, oj? J>33t ssel alamp
485 ]?aet hio Beowulfe, beaghroden cwen

mode ge]?ungen, medoful aetbser ;

grette Geata leod, Code bancode

wisfsest wordum baes 5e hire se willa gelamp

64 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

J?aet heo on senigne eorl gelyfde
490 fyrena frofre. He >set ful ge>eah,
wselreow wiga, set Wealh]?eon,
ond J?a gyddode gu]?e gefysed.

2. 11. 1008-1042

After the fight between Beowulf and Grendel, the hall Heorot is set in order
and a banquet held, at which the grateful Hrothgar gives Beowulf splendid
presents.

pa wses ssel ond msel

}?set t5 healle gang Healfdenes sunu ;
495 wolde self cyning symbel >icgan.

Ne gefraegn ic ]?a maeg]?e maran weorode

ymb hyra sincgyfan sel gebseran.

Bugon ]?a to bence blaed[agen]de,

fylle gefsegon, faegere ge]?3egon
500 medoful manig ; magas ze;ar0(n)

swiShicgende on sele J»am hean,

HroSgar ond Hro]?ulf. Heorot innan wses

freondum afylled ; nalles facenstafas

Deod-Scyldingas ]?enden fremedon.
505 Forgeaf >a Beowulfe beam Healfdenes

segen gyldenne sigores to leane,

hroden hiltecumbor, helm ond byrnan,

msere ma5]?umsweord ; manige gesawon

beforan beorn beran. Beowulf ge^ah
510 ful on flette ; no he baere feohgyfte

for sc(e)oten(d)um scamigan Sorfte.

Ne gefrsegn ic freondlicor feower madmas

golde gegyrede gummanna fela

in ealobence oSrum gesellan.
515 Ymb j?aes helmes hrof heafodbeorge

wirum bewunden wal^ utan heold,

]?aet him fe(o)la laf frecne ne meahtd

scurheard sce]?San, ]?onne scyldfreca

ongean gramum gangan scolde.
520 Heht t>a eorla hleo eahta mearas

500. )>ara. 505. brand. 516. walan. 517. meahton.

XIV. BEOWULF 65

fsetedhleore on flet teon
in under eoderas ; ]?ara anum stod
sadol searwum fan, since gewur]?ad ;
]?aet waes hildesetl heahcyninges
525 Sonne sweorda gelac sunu Healfdenes
efnan wolde; nsefre on ore laeg
widcu]?es wig, Sonne walu feollon.

3. Preparations for the night (11. 1232—1250)

After the banquet Hrothgar and his court retire, leaving Beowulf and his men
in Heorot.

wses symbla cyst,

druncon win weras, wyrd ne cujxm,
530 geosceaft grimme, swa hit agangen wearS

eorla manegum. Sy]?5an sefen cwom,

ond him Hro]?gar gewat to hofe smum,

rice to rseste. Reced weardode

unrim eorla, swa hie oft ser dydon ;
535 benc]?elu beredon \ hit geondbrabded wearS

beddum ond bolstrum. Beorscealca sum

fus ond fsege fletrseste gebeag.

Setton him to heafdon hilderandas,

bordwudu beorhtan ; J?ser on bence waes
540 ofer as]?elinge y]?gesene

hea]?osteapa helm, hringed byrne,

]?recwudu ]?rymlic. Waes ]?eaw hyra

J?aet hie oft wseron anwiggearwe

ge aet ham ge on herge, ge gehwae]?er ]?ara,
545 efne swylce msela swylce hira mandryhtne

f>earf gesaelde ; waes seo ]?eod tilu.

I. BEOWULF is MADE A HEREDITARY CHIEF

11. 2190—99

On Beowulf's return home he presents his uncle, Hygelac king of the Geats
with the gifts he has received from Hrothgar, the Danish king. Thereupon
Hygelac confers on him a share in the royal domain, with appropriate endow-
ment and privileges.

Het Sa eorla hleo in gefetian,
heaSorof cyning, HreSles lafe

F

66 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

golde gegyrede ; rises mid Geatum Sa
550 sincmaSbum selra on sweordes had ;

]?aet he on Biowulfes bearm alegde,

ond him gesealde seofan busendo,

bold ond bregostol. Him wses bam samod

on 5am leodscipe lond gecynde,
555 card, eSelriht, 65rum swISor

side rice, bam (be) <5air selra wses.

J. WEAPONS AND ARMOUR

In Beowulf 'the chief weapon for close fighting is the sword, sweord, bill, mece,
etc. ; for more distant attack the spear or javelin, spere, gar, cesc, cescholt, etc. ;
also the bow, boga, and arrow, flan. The protective armour consists of a tunic
of steel links, byrne, lusyrce, hringnet, etc., a helmet of iron or steel, helm,
grimhelm ; in some cases surmounted by the image of a wild boar, eofor, eoforlic,
ferh. The band or hoop round the helm is called walu. The circular shield of
linden- wood, scyld, rand, bord, lind, etc., is covered with metal. Swords are
valued for their age and history ; they are handed down from father to son and
are a favourite form of valuable gift. They bear names, such as Hrunting,
Nsegling, Mimming (in Waldere}.

1. Beowulf and his men march to Heorot (11. 321—331)

GuSbyrne scan

heard hondlocen, hringiren scir

song in searwum, ]?a hie to sele furftum
560 in hyra gryregeatwum gangan cwomon.

Setton ssemebe side scyldas,

rondas regnhearde, wi<5 bass recedes weal ;

bugon ]?a to bence. Byrnan hringdon,

guSsearo gumena ; garas stodon,
565 saimanna searo, samod aetgaedere,

aescholt ufan graeg ; waes se IrenJ?reat

wsepnum gewur]?ad.

2. Beowulf girds on his armour (11. 1441—64)

Gyrede hine Beowulf

eorlgewsedum, nalles for ealdre mearn ;
570 scolde hildebyrne hondum gebroden,

XIV. BEOWULF 67

sid ond searofah, sund cunnian,

seo Se bancofan beorgan cu]?e,

}?aet him hildegrap hre]?re ne mihte,

eorres inwitfeng, aldre gesce]?(5an ;
575 ac se hwlta helm hafelan werede,

se }>Q meregrundas mengan scolde,

secan sundgebland, since geweor<5ad,

befongen freawrasnum, swa hine fyrndagum

worhte waepna smiS, wundrum teode,
580 besette swinlicum, ]?aet hine sy5]?an no

bro^dne beadomecas bitan ne meahton.

Nses ]?aet J?onne msetost msegenfultuma

J?set him on Searfe lah Syle HroSgares ;

waes ]?sem haeftmece Hrunting nama ;
585 I'set wses an foran ealdgestreona,

ecg waes Iren, atertanum fah,

ahyrded hea]?oswate ; nsefre hit aet hilde ne swac

manna aengum ]?ara ]?e hit mid mundum bewand,

se Se gryresISas gegan dorste,
500 folcstede fara ; naes ]?aet forma sI5

]?aet hit ellenweorc asfnan scolde.

3. The Giant Sword dissolves in the monsters blood

(11. i

Sy]?San he eft astod,
geseah Sa on searwum sigeeadig bil,
ealdsweord eotenisc ecgum ]?yhtig,
595 wigena weorSmynd ; ]?aet (waes) waepna cyst,
buton hit waes mare Sonne senig mon 63er
to beadulace aetberan meahte,
god ond geatolic, giganta geweorc.

• ••• ••••

Pa ]?aet sweord ongan
600 aefter hea]?oswate hildegicelum,

wigbil wanian \ ]?aet waes wundra sum
]?aet hit eal gemealt ise gelicost,

581. brond ne.

68 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

Sonne forstes bend Feeder onlseteS,

• ••• , • •••

Da wses gylden hilt gamelum rince,
605 harum hildfruman, on hand gyfen,
enta sergeweorc ; hit on sent gehwearf
setter deofla hryre Denigea frean,
wundorsmi]?a geweorc,

• ••• •••*

HroSgar ma<5elode, hylt sceawode,
610 ealde lafe, on 5sem wses or writen

fyrngewinnes, sySban flod ofsloh,

gifen geotende, giganta cyn ;

frecne geferdon ; J?set wses fremde ]?eod

ecean Dryhtne ; him ]?ses endelean
615 burh waeteres wylm Waldend sealde.

Swa wses on Ssem scennum sciran goldes

]?urh runstafas rihte gemearcod,

geseted ond gesaed, hwam ]?9et sweord geworht,

iren(n)a cyst, serest wsere,
620 wreoj»enhilt ond wyrmfah.

15. THE BATTLE OF BRUNANBURH

This poem is of historical as well as of literary interest. It forms the entry
for the year A. D. 937 in the A.-S. Chronicle and celebrates the overwhelming
victory gained by yEthelstan, king of Wessex, and his brother Eadmund over the
Northumbrian Danes, who were joined by Irish Scandinavians, Scots lender
King Constantine, and the Welsh of Strathclyde, a victory which finally
established the supremacy of Wessex in England. A number of places have
been suggested as the site of the battle, e.g. Bromborough on the Mersey,
Burnswark, a hill in Dumfriesshire, and Bramber near Preston, S. of the
Ribble. In favour of the last named is the fact that in 1840 a large -hoard of
silver ingots and coins, none of later date than 930, was unearthed at Cuerdale,
a parish some two miles E. of Preston on the Ribble. It is presumed that the
treasure was the war-chest of the confederate army.

The tone of the poem is one of triumph ; the versification is correct and the
style vigorous, though somewhat hackneyed, with phrases and vocabulary of the
older poetry. It is to be noted that the Battle of Brunanburh is the first of
several annals written in the traditional alliterating metre, the others belonging
respectively to the years 942, 073, 975, and 1065.

Her ^j^elstan cyning,

beorna bephgif?- ano bis ^rc^o" e'.c,

Eadmund se>eling, ealdorlangnc tlr

XV. THE BATTLE OF BRUNANBURH

69

aet-sggcce sweorda ecgum
5 ymbe Brunnan'burh. Bordweal(l) clufan,
heowan hea]?olinde hamora lafom
eaforan Eadweardes, s\va him gesej^ele wses
from cneomsegum jpaet hi set campe oft
wi}> laj'ra gehwsene land ealgodon,

10 hoid and hamas. Hettend crungon,
Scotta-leode, and scipflotan
fsege feollan, feld dennade
s^cga swale, si$]>an sunne up
on morgentid, T»a&ie-t*mgoi,

15 gl R d • oftX-grundas, Godes condelr beorht,
eces Drihtnes, o"5' sio se^elc gesceaft

20 werig, wiges ssed. Westseaxe forS
ondlongne dseg oered^ysttwii
on last legdon la.]>ui»--]jeoxium,
heowan herefleman hindan pearte
Caecum mylenscearpum. MycoL-Qa wyradoti

25 heardes hondplegan iiade]?a nanum
^ara Se mid Anlafe ofer eargebland
on lides bosme land gesohton,
4«&ge l^^feokte. Fife Isegon
on }?am campstede cyningas geonge

30 sweordum aswefedc, swike seofene eac
eorlas Anlafes, unrim hcnges

' o

flotan and Scotta. ])£er geflemed wearo

n^do gobrod

to lides stefne" ly-t-le
35'cread cnear on flot, cyning ut gewat

Swilce pser eac se froda mid^fleaigg cogi
on his cy]^e norS, Constontinus,
har hilderinc, hreman ne J^orfte.
40 aaeca gemanan ; he wses his mi
feeonda gefylled, on folcstede

19. Scittisc.

70 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

beslagen set ssecce, and his sunu forlet
on waelstowe wundum forgrunden,
geongne- u3t: gufie ; gel pan ne borfte
45 beorn blandcufeax kilgeslehtes,
v£ald inwidda, ne Anlaf ]ry ma
mid heura herelafuni hlehhan ne ]?orfton
J?aet hi beaduweorca

on campsrede, . .cwnbolgehnastes,

S^garm-ittinge, guinena gemotes,

waipengewrixles, J^ses hi on waelfelda
\vi)> Eadweardc-s eaforan plegodon.
Gewitoji him pa, Xurj?men naegl%dcnearr«*n
dreprig daroSa laf, on Dynges mere

55-ofer d^op-wset&r Dyflen secan,
eft Traland, -aewiscmode.
•Swilcc ]>a gcbr (")]?< jr bjs^*?«-a£t§a^afi,
cynirrg and aj^eiin-g, ey]?J>e sohton,
We&tsejuijd IAIJI!, ' wige^-hrrrTTige.

60 Letan him b<.hindaa hraw bryttian
saluvvigpadaii, fcoflfr*^ MUI- u i» hi a. Fi'i,

and

earn aeftan hwit, ^eses"hrae*n,
grsedigne guShafoc, aud ]?a£t graege deor,

65 wutf on weatde. Nc wearS wael mare
on ]?is iglande elfre gieta
Iblces-gefyUod l^eforan jnssum
sweordes ecgitm, i'ass ]?e us secgaS bee,
ealde uSwitan, »i]?})an eastan hidet

70 Engle and Seaxe «p becon^an
ofer brade brima, B^yiuitt-^dfrtJln,
wlance wigsmiSas, Wealas ofercoman,
eprlas arhwate, eard begeatan.

J^

16. THE BATTLE OF JALDON

The events described in this poem with such vigour and strong feeling are
briefly mentioned in the A.-S. Chronicle anno 991. They were an incident in
the Scandinavian attacks on Britain at the end of the tenth century, which
culminated in the conquest by Cnut in 1012. Byrhtnoth, King ./Ethelred's
ealdorman or deputy in Essex, is hurrying with his troop to give battle to a

XVI. THE BATTLE OF MALDON 71

Danish force which has sailed up the estuary of the river Panta, the modern
Blackwater, near the site of the modern town of Maldon. On reaching the
shore opposite the landing-place of the Danes, Byrhtnoth proceeds to marshal
his little force and to instruct his men how best to fight. The rest of the poem
is a spirited narrative of the incidents in the fight, which was in reality a losing
one for the Englishmen. The old bond of loyalty between chieftain and retainer
is still strong and is nowhere expressed with deeper feeling. The heroes of the
fight are named in this earliest English * roll of honour ' and their deeds noted,
while the cowardly flight of others is branded for ever. The language of the
poem is simple, being/ almost free from the device of repeating the same idea in
different words which is used so freely in the older verse. There are also com-
paratively few compound nouns and adjectives. Considering the date of composi-
tion the versification keeps fairly close to the traditional rules, but exhibits some
relaxation of the strict standard of Beowulf and other older poems. The first
lines of the poem have been lost.

brocen wurde ;

het ]?a hyssa hwsene hors forlastan,

feor afysan and for5 gangan,

hicgan to handum and t(6) hige godum.
5 P(a) bast Offan mseg merest onfunde,

]?aet se eorl nolde yrhSo ge]?olian,

he let him ]?a of handon leofoe fleogan

hafoc wi5 J>aes holtes, and to J?sere hilde stop ;

be ]?am man mihte oncnawan ]?aet se cniht nolde
10 wacian set bam w(I)ge, ba he to wajpnum feng.

Eac him wolde Eadric his ealdre gelsestan,

frean to gefeohte ; ongan J>a for5 beran

gar to gube ; he hsefde god ge]?anc

}?a hwile be he mid handum healdan mihte
15 bord and brad swurd; beot he gelseste,

ha he setforan his frean feohtan sceolde.
Pa )?ser ByrhtnoS ongan beornas trymian,

rad and rsedde, rincum tsehte

hu hi sceoldon standan and ]?one stede healdan,
20 and bsed ]?set hyra randan rihte heoldon

fasste mid folman, and ne forhtedon na.

pa he haefde J?aet folc fsegere getrymmed,

he lihte ]?a mid leodon bser him leofost wses,

]?ser he his heorSwerod holdost wiste.
25 Pa stod on staefte, stiSHce clypode

wicinga ar, wordum mselde,

7. leofre. 20. randan.

NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

se on beot ahead brimli]?endra
seraende to ]?am eorle, J>3er he on ofre stod :
' Me sendon to ]?e ssemen snelle ;
30 ' heton <5e secgan ]?aet ]?u most sendan raSe

* beagas wi<5 gebeorge, and eow betere is

' ]?aet ge J>isne garraes mid gafole forgyldon

4]?on(ne) we swa hearde (h)ilde dselon.

' Ne jmrfe we us spillan ; gif ge speda]? to ]mm,

35 'we willaS wiS J>am golde gri5 fasstnian.
4 Gyf ]?u ]?at gersedest, J>e her ricost eart,
' J>set J?u ]?me leoda lysan wille,
' syllan ssemannum on hyra sylfra dom
' feoh wiS freode and niman fri<5 aet us,

40 * we willa]? mid ]?am sceattum us to scype gangan,
' on flot feran, and eow frizes healdan.'
ByrhtnoS ma]?elode, bord hafenode,
wand wacne aesc, wordum maelde,
yrre and anrsed, ageaf him an ds ware :

45 ' Gehyrst ]?u, sselida, hwset )?is folc segeS ?
'hi willaS eow to gafole garas syllan,
' settrynne ord and ealde swurd,
' J?a heregeatu ]?e eow ast hilde ne deah.
' Brimmanna boda, abeod eft ongean,

50 ' sege ]?inum leodum miccle la]?re spell,
' J>aet her stynt unforcuS eorl mid his werode,

* J?e wile gealgean e]?el ]?ysne,
'^E]?elredes card, ealdres mines,

' folc and foldan ; feallan sceolon
55 'h8e]?ene aet hilde. To heanlic me ]?ince3

'j?3et ge mid urum sceattum to scype gangon

' unbefohtne, nu ge J>us feor hider

' on urne card in becomon.

' Ne sceole ge swa softe sine gegangan ;
60 ' us sceal ord and ecg ser geseman,

' grim guSplega, ser we gafol syllon.'

Het J>a bord beran, beornas gangan,

J>aet hi on J>am easteSe ealle stodon.

Ne mihte ]?2er for waetere werod to ]?am 65rum •

61. J>e gofol.

XVI. THE BATTLE OF MALDON 73

65 j?ser com flowende flod sefter ebban,

lucon lagustreamas ; to lang hit him jriihte

hwaenne hi togsedere garas beron.

HI J?aer Pantan stream mid prasse bestodon,

Eastseaxena ord, and se seschere ;
70 ne mihte hyra aenig 6}?riim derian,

buton hwa ]?urh flanes flyht fyl gename.

Se flod ut gewat ; ]?a flotan stodon gearowe

wicinga fela, wiges georne.

Het J?a haeleSa hleo healdan J>a bricge
75 wigan wigheardne, se wass haten Wulfstan,

cafne mid his cynne ; )?33t waes Ceolan sunu,

)?e 5one forman man mid his francan ofsceat,

]?e ]?ser baldlicost on }?a bricge stop.

P^r stodon mid Wulfstane wigan unforhte,
80 ^Elfere and Maccus, modige twegen \

}>& noldon set ]?am forda fleam gewyrcan,

ac hi faestlice wiS 5a fynd weredon,

J>a hwile ]?e hi wsepna wealdan moston.

Pa hi ]?aet ongeaton and georne gesawon,
85 J?32t hi ]?ser bricgweardas bitere fundon,

ongunnon lytegian ]?a l^Se gystas ;

bsedon J?aet hi upgang agan moston,

ofer )?one ford faran, fe]?an laedan.

Da se eorl ongan for his ofermode
90 alyfan landes to fela laj^ere Seode.

Ongan ceallian )?a ofer cald wseter

Byrhtelmes beam ; beornas gehlyston :

* Nu eow is gerymed, gaS ricene t5 us,

4 guman to gu)?e ; God ana wat
95 ' hwa ]?£ere waelstowe wealdan mote.'

Wodon ]?a waelwulfas, for wsetere ne murnon,

wicinga werod, west ofer Pantan,

ofer sclr waeter scyldas wegon,

lidmen to lande linde babron.
100 P^er ongean gramum gearowe stodon

ByrhtnoS mid beornum ; he mid bordum het

wyrcan ]?one wlhagan, and ]?set werod healdan

86. luSe. 97. pest.

74 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

faeste wiS feondum. Pa waes f(e)ohte neh,

tir aet getohte ; waes seo tid cumen
105 ]?aet ]?£er faige men feallan sceoldon.

Paer wearS hream ahafen, ^remmas wundon,

earn ssses georn ; wses on eor]?an cyrm.

Hi leton )?a of folman feolhearde speru,

gegrundene garas fleogan ;
no bogan wseron bysige, bord ord onfeng,

biter wses se beadurabs ; beornas feollon

on gehwaeSere hand, hyssas lagon.

Wund wearfr Wulfmser, waslrasste geceas,

ByrhtnoSes mseg, he mid billum wearS,
115 his swustersunu, swISe forheawen.

Paer waerfir wciingum wi]?erlean agyfen ;

gehyrde ic >aet Eadweard anne sloge

swiSe mid his swurde, swenges ne wyrnde,

J>set him aet fotum feoll fsege cempa ;
120 ^^es him his Seoden J>anc gessede,

}?am bur)?ene, ]?a he byre hsefde.

Swa stemnetton stISh/(c)gende

hys(s)as set hilde, hogodon georne

hwa }?8er mid orde aerost mihte
12$ on fsegean men feorh gewinnan,

wigan mid wsepnum ; wael feol on eorSan.

Stodon staedefseste, stihte hi ByrhtnoS,

baed }?aet hyssa gehwylc hogode to wige,

]?e on Denon wolde dom gefeohtan.
130 Wod ]?a wiges heard, wsepen up ahof,

bord to gebeorge, and wiS ]?aes beornes stop ;

code swa anraed eorl to ]?am ceorle ;

aeg]?er hyra 65rum yfeles hogode.

Sende Sa se saerinc su]?erne gar,
135 ]?aet gewtmdod wearS wigena hlaford;

he sceaf ]?a mid Sam scylde, J?set se sceaft tobaerst,

and J?set spere sprengde, ]?aet hit sprang ongean.

Gegremod wearS se guSrinc ; he mid gare stang

wlancne wicing ]?e him ]?a wunde forgeaf.
140 Frod waes se fyrdrinc, he let his francan wadan

1 06. bremmas. 113. weard. 116. waerd. 122. stifthugende.

XVI. THE BATTLE OF MALDON 75

]?urh tfees hysses hals ; hand wisode

J?aet he on ]?am fsersceaSan feorh geraehte.

Da he 6]?erne ofstlice sceat,

J?aet seo byrne tobaerst ; he wses on breostum wund
145 )>urh 5a hringlocan, him set heortan stod

setterne ord. Se eorl waes ]?e bli]?ra,

hloh J?a modi man, ssede Metode ]?anc

Sses dsegweorces ]?e him Drihten forgeaf.

Forlet ]?a drenga sum daroS of handa,
150 fleogan of folman, J?set se to forS gewat

}?urh Sone se)?elan ^E)?elredes )?egen.

Him be healfe stod hyse unweaxen,

cniht on gecampe, se full caflice

brsed of )?am beorne blodigne gar,
155 Wulfstanes beam, Wulfmser se geonga,

forlet forheardne faran eft ongean ;

ord in gewod, ]?8et se on eor]?an Iseg,

)?e his ]?eoden ser Dearie gersehte.

Eode J>a gesyrwed secg to ]?am eorle ;
1 60 he wolde ]?ass beornes beagas gefe/gan,

reaf and hringas, and gerenod swurd.

Da ByrhtnoS brsed bill of sce<5e,

brad and brunecg, and on ]?a byrnan sloh ;

to ra]?e hine gelette lidmanna sum,
165 J>a he ]?3es eorles earm amyrde ;

feoll ]?a to foldan fealohilte swurd,

ne mihte he gehealdan heardne mece,

wsepnes wealdan. Pa gyt )?set word gecwseS

har hilderinc, hyssas bylde,
170 bsed gangan forS gode geferan ;

ne mihte ]?a on fotum leng fseste gest^ndan,

( ) he to heofenum wlat :

* (Ic) ge]?anc(i)e )?e, Seoda Waldend,

* ealra ]?3era wynna ]?e ic on worulde gebad ;
175 {nu ic ah, milde Metod, mseste ]?earfe

1 J?ast J»u minum gaste godes geunne,
.* )?aet mm sawul to 5e siSian mote,
{on Ipln geweald, Peoden engla,

1 60. gefecgan. 171. gestundan.

76 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

' mid fri]?e ferian ; ic com frymdi to ]>e
1 80 ()?3et hi helsceaSan hynan ne moton.'

Da hine heowon hseftene scealcas,

and begen ]?a beornas }?e him big stodon,

JElfaoft and Wulmaer, begen lagon ;

5a onemn hyra frean feorh gesealdon.
185 Hi bugon ]?a fram beaduwe )?e ]?8er beon noldon.

Pser wurdon Oddan beam Merest on fleame,

Godric fram gu]?e, and ]?one godan forlet

]?e him maenigne oft mear gesealde ;

he gehleop ]?one eoh ]?e ahte his hlaford,
190 on ]?am ger^edum ]?e hit riht ne wses,

and his bro<5ru mid him begen aer(n)don,

Godz^ine and Godwig, guj?e ne gymdon,

ac wendon fram ]?am wige and J?one wudu sdhton

flugon on ]?8et fsesten, and hyra feore burgon,
195 and manna ma ]?onne hit senig maeS wsere

gyf hi Ipa. geearnunga ealle gemundon

]?e he him to dugu]?e gedon hsefde.

Swa him OfFa on daeg ser assede

on ]?am me]?elstede, Ipa. he gemot hsefde,
200 J?aet ]?ser modelice manege sprabcon

)?e eft set J»sere (]?earfe) j^olian noldon.

Da wearS afeallen ]?ses folces ealdor,

-^E]?elredes eorl ; ealle gesawon

heorSgeneatas J?set hyra heorra Iseg.
205 Pa 5aer wendon forS wlance J>egenas,

unearge men, efston georne ;

hi woldon J>a ealle 6<5er twega,

lif forlset^n oSSe leofne gewrecan.

Swa hi bylde forS beam ^Elfrices,
210 wiga wintrum geong, wordum mselde;

^Elfwine ]?a cwseS, he on ellen sprsec :

* Gemun«(S) j?a msela }?e we oft set meodo sprabcon,
' ]?onne we on bence beot ahofon,

* hseleS on healle, ymbe heard gewinn ;
215 'nu mseg cunnian hwa cene sy.

* Ic wylle mine se}>elo eallum gecy]?an,

192. godrine. 200. manega. 208. forlsetun. 212. gemunu ])a.

XVI. THE BATTLE OF MALDON 77

' j?aet ic waes on Myrcon miccles cynnes ;

' waes mm ealda feeder Ealhelm haten,

'wis ealdorman, woruldgesselig.
220 'Ne sceolon me on J?sere ]?eode }>egenas aetwitan,

1 )?aet ic of Sisse fyrde feran wille,

' eard gesecan, nu mm ealdor ligeS

'forheawen set hilde; me is J?set hearma msest ;

' he waes segcfer mm mseg and mm hlaford.'
225 pa he forS code, fJehSe gemunde,

J?set he mid orde anne gersehte

flotan on ]?am folce j?aet se on foldan laeg

forwegen mid his wsepne. Ongan ]?a winas manian,

frynd and geferan, ]?set hi forS eodon,
230 Offa gemselde, sescholt asceoc :

' Hwaet ]?u, ^Elfwine, hafast ealle gemanode

' f>egenas to ]?earfe : nu ure ]?eoden 115,

' eorl on eorSan, us is eallum ]?earf

'J?set ure ssghwylc oj^erne bylde
235 ' wigan t5 wige ]?a hwile ]?e he wsspen masge

'habban and healdan, heardne mece,

' gar and god swurd. Us Godric haefS,

' earh Oddan beam, ealle beswicene ;

' wende J?aes formoni man J>a he on meare rad,
240 'on wlancan ]?am wicge, ]?aet waere hit ure hlaford;

'for]?an wearS her on felda folc totwsemed,

* scyldburh tobrocen. AbreoSe his angin,

'J?aet he her swa manigne man aflymde.'

Leofsunu gemaelde, and his linde ahof,
245 bord to gebeorge ; he J>am beorne oncwaeS :

{ Ic ]?aet gehate, J?aet ic heonon nelle

' fleon fotes trym, ac wille furSor gan,

4 wrecan on gewinne minne winedrihten.

1 Ne ]?urfon me embe Sturmere stedefaeste haelaeS
250 'wordum aetwitan, nu mm wine gecranc,

']?8et ic hlafordleas ham siSie,

' wende fram wige ; ac me sceal wsepen niman,

'ord and iren.' He ful yrre wod,

feaht faestlice, fleam he forhogode.

224. aegder.

NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

255 Dunnere j?a cwaeS, daroS acwehte,
unorne ceorl, ofer call clypode,
bsed ]?aet beorna gehwylc ByrhtnoS wrsece :
* Ne maeg na wandian se J?e wrecan j?ence3
( frean on folce, ne for feore murnan.'

260 pa hi forS eodon, feores hi ne rob ton ;
ongunnon J?a hiredmen heardlice feohtan,
grame garberend, and God bsedon
J?set hi moston gewrecan hyra winedrihten,
and on hyra feondum fyl gewyrcan.

265 Him se gysel ongan geornlice fylstan ;
he wses on NorShymbron heardes cynnes,
Ecglafes beam, him waes <ZEscferS nama ;
he ne wandode na set J?am wigplegan,
ac he fysde forS flan genehe ;

270 hwilon he on bord sceat, hwilon beorn taesde ;
aefre embe stunde he sealde sume wunde
J>a hwile Se he wsepna wealdan moste.
Pa gyt on orde stod Eadweard se langa,
gear*? and geornful ; gylpwordum sprasc

275 )?3et he nolde fleogan fotmsll landes,
ofer baec bugan, ]?a his betera leg ;
he braec ]?one bordweall and wi5 5a beornas feaht,
oS past he his sincgyfan on J>am sabmannum
wurSHce wrec £er he on waele laege.

280 Swa dyde fltyenc, 8e]?ele gefera,

feaht eornoste,
and swISe maenig 5J>er
cene hi weredon ;

fus and forSgeorn,
Sibyrhtes broSor
clufon celled bord,

baerst bordes laerig, and seo byrne sang
285 gryreleoSa sum. Pa 33t guSe sloh

Offa ]?one sselidan, ]?aet he on eorSan feoll

and Sser Gaddes mseg grund gesohte.

RaSe wearS get hilde OrTa forheawen ;

he haefde 5eah gefor]?od ]?82t he his frean gehet,
290 swa he beotode aer wiS his beahgifan,

J>set hi sceoldon begen on burh ridan,

hale to hame, o33e on here crin<rgan,

274. gearc. 292. crintgan.

XVI. THE BATTLE OF MALDON 79

on waelstowe wundum sweltan ;

he laeg Segenlice Seodne gehende.
295 Da wearS borda gebrsec ; brimmen wodon,

guSe gegremode ; gar oft ]?urhw6d

fseges feorhhus. For5 (S)a code Wistan,

Purslanes sunz/, wiS ]?as secgas feaht ;

he wses on ge]?rang(e) hyra Jreora bana,
300 air him Wigelwes beam on ]?am wsele Isege.

Paer wses stiS gemot ; stodon fseste

wigan on gewinne, wigend cruncon,

wundum werge ; wael feol on eor]?an.

Oswold and Eadwold ealle hwile,
305 begen ]?a gebro]?ru, beornas trymedon,

hyra winemagas, wordon baedon

]?aet hi }?aer set Searfe ]?olian sceoldon,

unwaclice wsepna neotan.

Byrhtwold maj»elode, bord hafenode ;
310 se waes eald geneat, sssc acwehte,

he ful baldlice beornas Iserde :

' Hige sceal ]?e heardra, heorte J?e cenre,

' mod sceal ]?e mare, ]?e ure msegen lytlaS.

' Her 113 ure ealdor call forheawen,
315 'god on greote; a mseg gnornian

1 se 5e nu fram ]?is wigplegan wendan ]?ence3.

* Ic com frod feores ; fram ic ne wille,

*ac ic me be healfe mmum hlaforde,

'be swa leofan men, licgan ]?ence.'
320 Swa hi ^J?elgares beam ealle bylde

Godric to gu]?e ; oft he gar forlet

waelspere windan on ]?a wicingas,

swa he on ]?am folce fyrmest code ;

heow and hynde, o# J>set he on hilde gecranc ;
325 nses ]?ast na se Godric J?e Sa gii#e forbeah.

298. suna. 300. wigelines. 324. od. 325. gude.

IV. BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

In the preceding three sections, which illustrate the traditional lore and the
mentality of the Anglo-Saxon poet, the influence of Christian ecclesiasticism is
not prominent. In the present section we give specimens exhibiting Biblical
subjects and Christian ethos and doctrine as viewed by earnest, naive Anglo-
Saxon churchmen, and by them set down in the native verse. The happy idea,
attributed by Bede to Caedmon as the result of a heavenly monition, of telling
the Hebrew Scriptural story and inculcating Christian principles in the
traditional poetic language and metre, must have seemed a veritable gift
of God to the Anglo-Saxon churchmen.

17
A. CEDMON'S HYMN

This little poem is quoted by Bede in his Ecclesiastical 'History of the English
People, written in A. D. 731, as the first poem composed by Csedmon after the
visit of the heavenly messenger who told him to sing of the Creation. The
original Northumbrian text of the poem has fortunately been preserved in one
of the Latin MSS. of the History. It is one of the earliest specimens of Old
English that we possess, as well as the earliest written version of an Anglo-
Saxon poem.

1. Northumbrian Version

Nu scylun hergan hefaenricaes Uard,
Metudses maecti end his modgidanc,
uerc uuldurfadur, sue he uundra gihuaes,
eci Dryctin, or astelidae.
5 He serist scop selda barnum
heben til hr5fe haleg scepen ;
tha middungeard moncynnses uard,
eci Dryctin, sefter tiadae
firum folda, Frea allmectig.

80

xvii. C/EDMON'S HYMN 81

2. Later West Saxon Version
\

Nu sculon herigean heofonrices Weard,

Meotodes meahte ond his modge]?anc,

weorc wuldorfseder, swa he wundra gehwses,

ece Drihten or onstealde.

He serest sceop eorSan bearnum,

heofon t5 hrofe, halig Scyppend j

]?a middangeard moncynnes Weard,

ece Drihten, sefter teode

firum foldan, Frea selmihtig.

B. BEDE'S DEATH-SONG

Bede died in the year A.D. 735 at the monastery of Jarrow, near the mouth
of the Tyne. There is extant a letter from Cuthbert, Abbot of Wearmouth and
Jarrow, to Cuthwine, a friend, describing Bede's last moments. Cuthbert says,
' In our own tongue also (for he was skilled in our native songs), speaking of
the dread departure of the soul from the body, he sang :

10 Fore there neldfaerae nsenig ni uuirthit
thoncsnotturra than him tharf sle
to ymbhycggannae Jer his hiniongae
huaet his gastae godaes aeththa yflaes
aefter deothdaege dcemid uueorthae.'

Cuthbert also mentions that Bede translated into his own language part
of St. John's Gospel and some extracts from the works of Bishop Isidore
(A.D. 560-636).

18. BIBLICAL AND RELIGIOUS PASSAGES IN

BEO WULF

We have reproduced the chief passages in Beowulf of a biblical and religious
character, as it is important to know their nature and extent in this poem,
treating as it does of a period long anterior to the conversion to Christianity
of any independent people of the Germanic race, yet probably composed in
Bede's lifetime. At one time critics were of opinion that all these passages
were later interpolations in a pre-Christian poem, but this view has been
generally given up. The tone and phraseology of 11. 4-9 of the first passage
remind us strongly of those of Caedmon's Hymn. Noteworthy is the nativte
of the poet, who makes the scop sing the story of Creation in the hall Heorot
Hrothgar the Danish king himself, like Beowulf the Geat, acknowledges the
wisdom and power of God, and attributes to him success and victory. Yet,
as we see in passage C, the poet calls the Danes 'heathen,' and pities their

G

82 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

benighted state, doubtless with an eye to the warning and edification of his
readers or hearers. The religious passages, especially the numerous shorter
ones, refer almost exclusively to the power of the Almighty (Metod, Dryhten,
Alwealda, Wuldorcyning, etc.).

A. THE MINSTREL SINGS THE STORY OF CREATION

11. 89-98

Peer waes hearpan sweg,
swutol sang scopes ; ssegde se J?e cu]?e
frumsceaft fira feorran reccan,
cwseS )>set se ^Elmihtiga eorSan worhfte],
5 wlitebeorhtne wang, swa waeter bebugeS,
gesette sigehre]?ig sunnan ond monan
leoman to leohte landbuendum,
ond gefraetwade foldan sceatas
leomum ond leafum ; lif eac gesceop
10 cynna gehwylcum ]?ara 5e cwice hwyrfa]?.

B. THE CURSE OF CAIN
11. 99-1 14

Swa Sa drihtguman dreamum lifdon

eadiglice oS Saet an ongan

fyrene fre[m]man, feond on helle ;

wses se grimma gsest Grendel haten,
15 msere mearcstapa, se ]?e moras heold,

fen ond fsesten ; fifelcynnes card

wonsaeli wer weardode hwile

si]?San him Scyppend forscrifen hsefde.

In Caines cynne J>one cwealm gewrsec
20 ece Drihten ]?aes }>e he Abel slog ;

ne gefeah he ]?sere fajhSe, ac he hine feor forwrsec,

Metod for )?y mane, mancynne fram.

Panon untydras ealle onwocon,

eotenas ond ylfe ond orcneas,

swylce gigantas, J?a wiS Gode wunnon

lange Jrage ; he him ftses lean forgeald.

XVIII. BIBLICAL AND RELIGIOUS PASSAGES IN BEOWULF 83

C. HEATHEN SACRIFICES
11. 175-188

Hrothgar, the Danish king, and his wise men, alarmed by Grendel's nightly
attacks, take counsel as to what had best be done. They appeal to their gods in
vain, and the poet pities their heathen ignorance.

Hwilum hie geheton set hsergtrafum

wigweorbunga, wordum bsedon

]?9et him gastbona geoce gefremede
30 wi<5 beodbreaum. Swylc waes beaw hyra,

hsebenra hyht, helle gemundon

in modsefan, Metod hie ne cubon,

dseda demend, ne wiston hie Drihten God

ne hie huru heofena helm herian ne cubon,
25 wuldres waldend. Wa biS bsem Se sceal

burh sliSne niS sawle bescufan

in fyres fae]?m, frofre ne wenan,

wihte gewendan ; wel bi5 bsem ]?e mot

aefter deaSdsege Drihten secean
40 ond to Feeder fsebmum freoSo wilnian.

D. HIDDEN TREASURE
11. 3051-3073 .

When men of old buried the hoard of treasure they laid a spell on it, pro-
nouncing the curse of God on any who should disturb it.

Ponne waes ]?set yrfe eacencraeftig,

iumonna gold, galdre bewunden,

baet 5am hringsele hrinan ne moste

gumena abnig, nefne God sylfa,

sigora soScyning, sealde ]?am 5e he wolde —

he is gehyld manna — hord openian,

efne swa hwylcum manna swa him gemet Suhte

• ••• ••••

Swa hit oS domes daeg diope benemdon,
beodnas msere, ]?a Saet bser dydon,

84 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

50 ]?set se secg wsere synnum scildig,
hergum geheaSerod, hellbendum fasst,
wommum gewitnad, se <5one wong strude.

E. SELECTED SHORTER PASSAGES

1. 11. 381-384"

hine halig God
for arstafum us onsende
55 to West-Denum, J?ses ic wen haebbe,
wiS Grendles gryre.

2. 11. 478, 479

God ea]?e mseg
]?one dolsceaSan daeda getwaefan.

3. 11. 685-687

ond sij>5an witig God

60 on swahwse]?ere bond, halig Dryhten,
maerSo deme, swa him gemet J>ince.

4. 11. 930, 931

a maeg God wyrcan
wunder sefter wundre, wuldres Hyrde.

5. 11. 977-979

Saer abidan sceal

maga mane fah miclan domes,
hu him scir Metod scrifan wille.

0

6. 11. 1609-161 1

Sonne forstes bend Faeder onlseteS,
onwindeS wgelrapas, se geweald hafaS
ssela ond msela ; ]?83t is soS Metod.

7. 11. 2819, 2820

70 him of hreSre gewat

sawol secan soSfasstra dom.

XIX. EXODUS 85

19. EXODUS

The Bodleian MS. Junius xi., written in the first half of the eleventh
century, contains a number of A.-S. poems dealing with the following biblical
subjects: (i) The first twenty-two chapters of Genesis, (2) the march of the
Hebrews out of Egypt across the Red Sea (the Exodus}, (3) the first five
chapters of the book of Daniel, (4) the temptation of Christ by Satan. At one
time the whole of these poems were attributed to Caedmon, in view of Bede's
statement that he sang ' of the whole story of Genesis, of the departure of Israel
from Egypt, and of many other stories of Holy Scripture,' as well as ' of the
Lord's incarnation, passion, resurrection, and ascension into heaven.' But closer
investigation has shown that there is considerable variety of style and language as
well as inequality of merit in these poems. At the same time it is quite possible
that some of Coedmon's work may have survived in them. We thus conclude
that the MS. is an anthology of A.-S. ecclesiastical poetry, more limited in its
scope than the famous Exeter Book, written about the same time, which contains
secular as well as religious verse. Exodus and Judith are the finest examples of
A.-S. biblical verse-narrative. In Exodus the Bible story is not slavishly followed
as it is in Genesis. The poet uses his fancy freely and writes almost as
if he thought he had himself marched with the Israelites, sharing their fears
and hopes. He has been in some measure influenced by Beowulf, judging by
his use of certain words and phrases, yet he has a vigour and boldness of style
which are his own. While the march of the Hebrews under Moses and their
passage of the Red Sea are vividly described, the personality of Moses, unlike
that of the leading figures in Beoividf, remains indistinct. On linguistic grounds
Exodus is usually considered to be the earliest of the A.-S. poems of an exclusively
biblical character, earlier than Genesis, Daniel, and Cynewulf's poems. But in
vocabulary, phraseology, and metre it does not differ much from Judith, which is
usually ascribed to the tenth century.

Two passages, of some no lines in all, have been omitted, being much
inferior to the rest of the poem and probably later interpolations. The text of
the MS. has been somewhat carelessly written by the copyist, so that a number
of conjectural emendations have had to be made.

Hwaet, we feor ond neah gefrigen habbaS
ofer middangeard Moyses domas,
wrse/lico wordriht, wera cneorissum
in uprodor, eadigra gehwam
5 sefter bealusiSe, bote Hfes
lifigendra gehwam, langsumne rjied
hseleSum secgan \ gehyre se 5e wille.
Pone on westenne weroda Drihten,
soSfsest cyning, mid his sylfes miht
10 gewyrSode, ond him wundra fela
ece Alwalda in sent forgeaf.
He waes leof Code, leoda aldor,

3. wraeclico. 8. werode.

86 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

horse ond hreSergleaw ; herges wisa,

freom folctoga, Faraones cyn,
15 Codes andsaca(n), gyrdwlte band,

]?aer him gesealde sigora Waldend,

modgum magoneswum, his maga feorh,

onwist eGles Abrahames sunum.

Heah wses ]?set handlean, ond him hold Frea
20 gesealde waepna ge weald wi5 wraSra gryre ;

ofercom mid ]?y campe cneomaga fela,

feonda folcriht. Da wses forma sI5

]?set hine weroda God wordum naegde,

]?2er he him gesaegde soSwundra fela,
25 hu J>as woruld worhte witig Drihten,

eorSan ymbhwyrft, ond uprodor

gesette sigerice, ond his sylfes naman,

Sone yldo bearn ser ne cuSon,

frod faedera cyn, J>eah hie fela wiston.
30 Hsefde he J>a geswISed soSum crseftum

ond gewurSodne werodes aldor,

Faraones feond, on forSwegas.

Pa waes ^ngera ealdum witum,

deaSe gedre^rced drihtfolca maest,
35 hordwearda hryre ; heaf wses geniwad,

swsefon seledreamas since berofene ;

hsefde mansceaSan set middere niht

frecne gefylled, frumbearna fela,

abro/ene burhweardas ; bana wide scraS,
40 laS leodhata. Land dry^m^de

deadra hrsewum ; dugoS forS gewat,

wop waes wide, worulddreama lyt ;

waeron hleahtorsmiSum handa belocene,

alyfed laSsIS leode gret(t)an,
45 folc ferende ; feond waes bereafod,

hergas on helle ; heofon ]?ider becom,

druron deofolgyld. Daeg wses mabre

ofer middangeard, J?a seo mengeo for ;

swa ]?ses faesten dreah fela missera

33. ingere. 34. gedrenced. 39. abrotene S., abrocene MS.

40. dryrmyde. 44. grettan S. 45. freond.

XIX. EXODUS 87

50 ealdwerige, Egypta folc,

J>aes ]?e hie wideferS wyrnan ]?ohton

Moyses magum, gif hie Metod lete,

onlangne lust leofes si<5es.

Fyrd wses gefysed, from se Se Isedde,
55 modig magorae(s)wa, maegburh heora.

Oferfor he mid J»y folce faesten(n)a worn;

land ond leod^eard laSra manna,

enge anpaSas, unciaS gelad,

o5 ]?aet hie on guSmyrce gea/we bseron ;

^•MMMHAm^W

60 waeron land heora lyfthelme be]?eaht,

mearchofu morheald ; Mouses ofer fra

fela meor(r)inga fyrde gelsedde.

Heht ]?a ymb twaniht tirfaeste haeleS,

siSSan hie feondum oSfaren hsefdon,
65 ymbwicigean _werodes bearhtme,

mid selfare, ^Ethanes byrig,

masgnes mseste, mearclandum on.

Nearwe genyddon on norSwegas,

wiston him be suSan Sigelwara land,
70 forbaerned burhhleoSu, brune leode,

hatum heofoncolum. Paer halig God

wiS faerbryne folc gescylde,

baelce oferbrsedde byrnendne heofon,

halgan nette, hatwendne lyft.
75 Haefde wederwolcen widum fseSmum

eorSan ond uprodor efne gedseled,

Isedde leodwerod, ligfyr adranc

hate heofontorht. HaeleS w^edon,

drihta gedrympst. Daegsceldes hleo
80 wand ofer wolcnum ; haefde witig God

sunnan siSfset segle ofertolden,

swa Sa msestrapas men ne cuSon,

ne Sa seglrode geseon meahton

eorSbuende ealle crasfte,
85 hu afsestnod waes feldhusa maest.

SiSSan he mid wuldre geweorSode

57. leodweard. 59. geatwe S. , gearwe MS. 62. meorringa S.

63. tirfaestne. 66. aelfere. 79. daegscealdes. 81. swegle.

88 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

Peoden holde, ]?a waes ]?ridda wic

folce to frofre ; fyrd call geseah

hu ]?aer hlifedon halige seglas,
90 lyftwundor leoht ; leode ongeton,

dugo<5 Israhela, J?ast J>ser Drihten cwom,

weroda Drihten \ycsteal metan.

Him beforan foran fyr ond wolcen

in beorhtrodor, beamas twegen,
95 ]?ara seghwaeSer efngedselde

heah]?egnunga haliges gastes,

deormodra siS, dagum ond nihtum.

Pa ic on morgen gefrsegn modes rofan

hebban herebyman hludan stefnum,
100 wuldres woman. Werod eall aras.

^ : „. •» 9

modigra msegen, swa him Moyses bebead,

msere magoraeswa, Metodes folce,

fus fyrdgetrum ; forS gesawon

lifes lat/eow lif(t)weg metan.
105 Segl siSe weold, saimen sefter

foron flodwege ; folc waes on salum,

hlud herges cyrm. Heofonbeacen astah

sefena gehwam, 63er wundor

syllic aefter sunnan — setlrade beheold — ,
no ofer leodwerum lige scinan,

byrnende beam. Blace stodon

ofer sceotendum scire leoman,

scinon scyldhreotJan, sceado sw^Sredon,

neowle nihtscuwan neah ne mihton,
115 heolstor ahydan. Heofoncandel barn ;

mwe nihtweard nyde sceolde

wician ofer weredum, ]>j l^es him westengryre

har(es) hseS(es) holmegum wederum

o(n) f^rclamme ferhS getwsef(de).
1 20 Haefde foregenga fyrene loccas,

blace beamas, hilegesan hweop

in )?am here]?reate, hatan lige,

he on westenne werod forbsernde,

104. latpeow. 105. swegl. 113. swiftredon.

119. ferclamme. 121. bellegesan.

XIX. EXODUS 89

nymSe hie modhwate Moyses hyrde.
125 Scean scir werod, scyldas lixton ;

gesawon randwigan rihte straste ;

segn ofer sweoton oS J?aet sjefaesten,

landes set ende, leo(d)maegne forstod,

fus on forSweg ; fyrdwlc aras,
130 wyrpton hie werige, wiste gensegdon,

modige mete]?egnas hyra maegen bet(t)on.

Brseddon aefter beorgum, siSSan byme sang,

flotan feldhusum ; }>a wses feorSe wiCj

randwigena raest, be J?an readan 533.
135 Daer on fyrd hyra fasrspell becwom,

oht inlende ; egsan stodan,

waelgryre weroda. Wraecmon gebad

laSne lastweard, se Se him lange ser

eSelleasum q/^(t)nied gescraf,
140 v/ean witum fsest ; wsere ne gymdon,

J?eah ]?e se yldra cyning 83r ge(sealde).

Da wearS yrfeweard ingefolca

manna sefter maSmurn, J?aet he swa miceles geSah ;

ealles J^aes forgeton, siSSan grame wurdon,
145 Egypta cyn, ymb an^(s) wig,

Sa heo his maegwinum morSor fremedon,

wroht berenedon, wsere fraeton.

Wseron hea?5owylmas heortan getenge,

mihtmod wera; manum treowum
150 woldon hie ]?aet feorhlean facne gyldan,

J>aette he ]?aet daegweorc dreore gebohte,

Moyses leode, j?ser him mihtig God

on Sam spilds;Se spede forgefe.

•M- • ^^C»*

Pa him eorla mod ortrywe wearS,

155 siSSan hie gesawon of suSwegum

fyrd Faraonis forS ongangan,

oferholt wegan, cored Hxan,

]?ufas J^unian, ]?eod mearc tredan ;

garas trymedon, gu5 hwearfode ;
1 60 blicon bordhreoSan, byman sungon,

139. onnied. 145. anes wig S. , antwig MS.

146. MS. has heo heo for heo.

90 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

on hwsel (. .)

hreopon herefugolas hilde grsedige,

deawigfeSere, ofer drihtneum,

wonn waelceasega. Wulfas sungon
165 atol sefenleoS sates on wenan,

carleasan deor, cwyldrof beodan

on la<5ra last leodmsegnes fyl,
. hreopon mearcweardas middum nihtum,

fleah fasge gast, folc waes geh(n)£eged.
17° Hwilum of ]?am werode wlance ]?egnas

mseton milpaSas meara bogum.

Him J?2er segncyning wiS ]?one segn foran,

manna ]?engel, mearc]?reate rad :

HBffVBiBi

guSweard gumena grimhelm gespeon,
175 cyning cinberge — cumbol lixtoh-

wiges on wenum, waelhlencan sceoc,

het his hereciste healdan georne

fsestyyrdgetrum ; freond on ssegon

laSum eagan landmanna cyme.
1 80 Ymb hine wgeron wlgend unforhte,

hare heor<?wulfas, hilde gretton,

Jmrstige j^raecwiges, ]?eodenholde.

Hsefde him alesen leoda dugeSe

tireadigra twa Jnisendo,
*-%5 ]?aet wseron cyningas and cneowmagas

on ]?3et ea(l)de riht aeSelum deore;

forSon anra gehwilc ut alaedde

wsepnedcynnes wigan seghwilcne

}?ara J>e he on Sam fyrste findan mihte.
190 Wseron inge men ealle aetgaedere,

cyningas on corSre ; cuS oft geb(e)ad

horn on heape to hwses hsegstealdmen,

guS]?reat gumena, geaAve b^eron.

Swa j?ser eorp werod, ecan Iseddon,
195 laS aefter laSum, leodmaegnes worn,

J»usendm2elum, ]?ider wseron fuse ;

162. hwreopon. 167. ful. 176. hwaelhlencan.

178. syrdgetrum ; onsigon. 180. waeron S. , wsegon MS.

181. heorawulfas. 193. geatwe S. , gearwe MS.

XIX. EXODUS 91

haefdon hie gemynted to ]?am maegenheapum

to ]?am aerdaege, Israhela cynn

billum abreotan on hyra broSorgyld.
200 For]?on waes in wicum wop up ahafen,

atol aefenleoS. Egesan stodon,

weredon waelnet, J?a se woma cwom ;

flugon frecne spel ; feond waes anmod,

werud waes wigblac, oS ]?aet wlance forsceaf
205 mihtig engel, se 5a menigeo beheold,

|>aet ]?ser gelaSe mid him leng ne mihton

geseon tosomne ; sIS wass gedseled.

Haefde nydfara nihtlangne fyrst,

]?eah Se him on healfa gehwam hettend seomedon,
210 maegen oSSe merestream ; nahton maran hwyrft,

waeron orwenan eSelrihtes,

saeton aefter beorgum in blacum reafum

wean on wenum. Wasccende bad

call seo sibgedriht somod aetgaedere
215 maran maegenes, oS (Saet) Moyses bebead

eorlas on uhttid aernum bemum,

folc somnigean, frecan arisan,

habban heora hlencan, hycgan on ellen,

beran beorht searo, beacnum cigean
220 sweot sande near ; snelle gemundon

weardas wigleoS. Werod waes gefysed,

bmdon ofer burgum — byman gehyrdon —

flotan feldhusum, fyrd waes on ofste.

SiSSan hie getealdon wi5 j?am teonhete
225 on )?am forSherge feSan twelfe

m5de rof(r)a ; maegen waes onhrered.

Waes on anra gehwam aeSelan cynnes

«4iMM*MHMMn^B^MMM>HMMHMMHMMI|<*' •

alesen under lindum leoda duguSe

on folcgetael fiftig cista ;
230 haefde cista gehwilc cuSes werodes

garberendra, guSfremmendra,

tyn hund geteled, tireadigra ;

]?aet waes wiglic werod ; wac(e) ne gretton

in )?aet rincgetael raeswan herges,
235 ]?a ]?e for geoguSe gyt ne mihton

92 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

under bordhreoftan breostnet wera
wi(5 flane feond folmum werigean,
ne him bealubenne gebiden haefdon
ofer linde laerig, Hcwunde swo/,
240 gylpplegan gares. Gamele ne moston,
hare heaSorincas, hilde on]?eon,
gif him modheapum maegen sw^Srade,
ac hie be waestmum wig(heap) curon,
hu in leodscipe laestan wolde
245 mod mid aran ; eac ]?an maegnes craeft
(. . . .) garbeames feng.
Pa waes handrofra here setgaedere,
fus forSwegas. Fana up (ge)rad,
beama beorhtost ; b/<^on ealle J?a gen
2 CQ hwonne siSboda saestreamum neah
leoht ofer lindum lyftedoras braec.
Ahleop ]?a for haeleSum hildecalla,
bald beohata, bord up ah5f,
heht ]?a folctogan fyrde gestillan,
]?enden m5diges meSel monige gehyrdon.
Wolde reordigean rices hyrde
ofer hereciste halgan stefne ;
werodes wisa wurSmyndum spraec :
' Ne beoS ge ]?y forhtran, ]?eah }>e Faraon brohte
260 ' sweordwigendra side hergas,

' eorla unrim. Him eallum wile

' mihtig Drihten ]mrh mine hand

* to daege }?issum daedlean gyfan,

' ]?aet hie lifigende leng ne moton
265 * ^gnian mid yrmSum Israhela cyn.

' Ne willaS eow andraedan deade feSan,

' feege ferhSlocan ; fyrst is aet ende

c laenes lifes. Eow is lar Codes

' abroden of breostum ; ic on beteran raed,

']?3et ge gewurSien wuldres Aldor,

' ond eow Liffrean lissa bidde,

' sigora gesynto, J>£er ge slSien.

239. swol S. , swor MS. 242. swiSrade.

249. buton. 265. ognian S. , asgnian MS.

xix. EXODUS 93

'Pis is se ecea Abrahames God,
'frumsceafta Frea, se <5as fyrd wereS,

275 ' modig ond maegenrof mid ]?sere miclan hand.'
Hof Sa for hergum hlude stefne
lifgendra /eod, ]?a he to leodum spraec :
' Hwaet, ge nu eagum to on lociatJ,
' folca leofost, faerwundra sum,

280 'hu ic sylfa sloh, ond £>eos swiSre hand,
' grene tane garsecges deop ;
'yS up fereS, ofstum wyrce5
' waeter wealfsesten. Wegas syndon dryge,
c haswe herestraeta, holm gerymed,

285 'ealde staSolas, ]?a ic ser ne gefrsegn
' ofer middangeard men geferan,
' fage feldas, ]?a for5 heonon
' in ec(ness)e ySe J?eahton,
' sselde ssegrundas. Su(n)</ wind fornam,

290 ' bseSweges bluest ; bum is areafod,
' sandsse Jsp(r)an(c). Ic wat soS gere
' J?aet eow mihtig God miltse gecySde,
' eorlas serglade ! Ofest is selost,
' j^aet ge of feonda fseSme weorSen,

295 'nu se Agend(frea) up arserde
' reade streamas in randgebeorh ;
' syndon }?a foreweallas faegre gestepte,
'wraetlicu wsegfaru, o3 wolcna hrof.'
^Efter J>am wordum werod call aras,

300 modigra msegen ; mere stille bad.
Hofon herecyste hwlte linde,
segnas on sande ; sabweall astah,
uplang gestod wiS Israhelum
andaagne fyrst ; waes seo eorla gedriht

505 anes modes, ....

fsestum faeSmum freocfowsere heold ;
nalles hi gehyrdon haliges lare
leofes leoj> laaste near,

277. J>eod. 281. tacne. 283. wealfsesten.

288. ecnesse S. 289. suSwind. 290. bring.

291. sandsse aspranc S. , sand saecir span MS. 307. hige gehyrdon.

94 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

sweg swISrode, ond sanies bland.
310 pa ]?aet feorSe cyn fyrmest code,

wod on wsegstream, wigan on heape,
ofer grenne grund ; ludisc feSa
an o^ette uncuS gelad
for his iriEegwiniim, swa him mihtig God
315 }>3es daegweorces deop lean forgeald,
siSSan him gesselde sigorworca hreS,
]?35t he ealdordom agan sceolde
ofer cynericu, cneowmaga blsed.
Hsefdon him to segne, ]?a hie on sund stigon,
320 ofer bordhreoSan beacen arsered
in j?am garheape, gyldenne leo^,
drihtfolca msest, deora cenost ;
be ]?am herewisan hynSo ne woldon
be him lifigendum lange ]?olian,
325 ]?onne hie to gu5e garwudu rserdon,
Seoda senigre. Pracz/ wees on ore,
heard handplega, hsegsteald modige
wsepna wselslihtes, wigend unforhte,
bilswaSu blodige, beadumsegnes raes,
330 grimhelma gegrind, ]?ser ludas for.
^Efter ]?aere fyrde flota modgade,
Rubenes sunu ; randas ba^ron
ssewlcingas ofer sealtne mersc,
man(na) memo, micel angetrum
335 code unforht. He his ealdordom
synnum aswefede, j?aet he srSor for
on leofes last ; him on leodsceare
frumbearnes riht freobroSor o5]rah,
ead ond seSelo ; he wses gearu swa]?eah.
340 peer aefter him (foron) folca J>rySum
suna Simeones, sweotum comon,
]?ridde j^eodmaegen, — ]?ufas wundon
ofer garfare — guScyste on]?rang
dea(S)wigsceaftum. Daegwoma becwom
345 ofer garsecge, Godes beacna sum,

309. sances. 313. an onette S. , an onorette MS. 321. leor. 326. ]>raca.
341. sunu. 344. deaSwigsceaftum S. , deawig sceaftum MS. 345. garsecges.

XIX. EXODUS 95

morgen m<?retorht. Msegen forS gewat,

J>a ]?£er folcmaegen for setter oSrum

isernhergum ; an wisode

msegen]?rymmum msest — Jy he msere wearS —
350 on forSwegas, folc setter /oleum,

cynn setter cynne ; cu<5e seghwilc

msegburga riht, swa him Moises bead,

eorla aeSelo ; him wses an fseder.

Leof leodfruma landriht ge]?ah,
355 frod on ferhfte, freomagum leof,

cende cneowsibbe cenra manna,

heahfsedera sum, halige J^eode,

Israela cyn, ^nriht Codes.

Swa ]?set or]?ancum ealde reccaS,
360 ]?a ]?e msegburge mxst gefrunon,

frumcyn feora, faederaeSelo gehwses.

• •*• ••••

Folc waes afsered ; flodegsa becwom

gastas geomre, geofon deaSe hweop.

Wseron beorhhliSu blode bestemed,
365 holm heolfre spaw, hream wses on yftum,
v449) wseter wsepna ful, wselmist astah.

Wgeron Egypte eft oncyrde,

flugon forhtigende, fser ongeton,

woldon herebleaSe hamas findan,
37° gylp wear<5 gnornra. Him ongen genap
(454) atol ySa gewealc ; ne S^er senig becwom

herges to hame, ac behindan beleac

wyrd mid wsege, pser sir wegas lagon,

mere modgode, maegen waes adrenced
375 Streamas stodon, storm up gewat
(459) heah to heofonum, herewopa msest ;

Ia5e cyrmdon — lyft up geswearc —

fsegum st^fnum ; flod blod gewod.

Randbyrig wjeron rofene, rodor swipode
380 meredeaSa msest ; modige swulton
(464)

346. mseretorht. 35°- wolcnum.

358. anriht S. , onriht MS. 378. staefnum.

BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

cyningas on cortfre, cyrm swiSrode
sses set ende — wigbord scinon.
Heah ofer haeleSum holmweall astah,
merestream modig ; msegen wses on cwealme
385 fseste gefeterod, forSgang esnes
(469) Searwum ^sailed. Sand hi renodon

witodre zfyrde hwonne waSema stream,
sincalda sae sealtum ySum,
aeflastum gewuna, ece staSulas,
390 nacud nydboda, neosan come,
(474) fah feSegast, se 3e feondum ge/^(w)eop.
Wses seo hsewene lyft heolfre geblanden ;
brim berstende blodegesan hweop
saemanna sIS, oS J>aet soS Metod
395 ]mrh Moyses hand modge rymde,
(479) wide wseSde, waelfeeSmum sweop ;
flod famgode, faege crungon,
lagu land gefeol, lyft wses onhrered ;
wicon weallfsesten, wssgas burston,
400 multon meretorras, ]?a se Mihtiga sloh
(4^4) mid halige hand, heofonrices Weard,
(on) werbeamas. Wlance Seode
ne mihton forhabban, helpendrayfe<5(m),
merestreames mod, ac he manegum gesceod,
405 gyllende gryre ; garsecg wedde,
(489) up ateah, on sleap ; egesan stodon,
weollon wselbenna. Wi^rod gefeol
heah of heofonum, handweorc Godes,
famigbosma flodwearde sloh,
410 unhleowan wasg, aide mece,
(494) ]?aet Sy deaSdrepe drihte swsefon,
synfullra sweot, sawlum lunnon
faeste befarene, flodblac here,
siSSan hie on ^ogum faan yrrmga
415 modwaega maest. Maegen eall gedreas,

(499) 381. eyre. 385. forftgang esnes S., forSganges nep MS.

386. sesseled. hi renodon S. barenodon MS. 387. fyrde.

391. gehweop S., geneop MS. 403. faeSm/S. , paS MS.

407. wigrod S. , witrod MS.
414. on hogum hran yrringa St, on bogum brun yppinge MS. 415. modewasga.

XIX. EXODUS 97

]?e gedre(n)cte, dugoS Egypta,

Faraon mid his folcum ; he onfond hraSe,

siSSan (he grund) gestah, Godes andsaca,

]?aet wses mihtigra mereflodes weard ;
420 wolde IwrufseSmum hilde gesceadan,
104) yrre ond egesfull. Egyptum wearS

J?3es dsegweorces deop lean gesceod ;

forSam J»ses heriges ham eft ne com,

ealles ungrundes, £enig to lafe,
425 ]>sette sI5 heora secgan moste,
[09) bodigean sefter burgum bealospella msest,

hordwearda hryre hseleSa cwenum,

ac ]?a msegen]?reatas meredeaS geswealh,

(swa eac) spelbodan, se 5e sped ahte ;
430 ageat gylp wera ; hie wicS God wunnon.
514) panon Israhelum ece rsedas

on merehwearfe Moyse(s) saegde,

heah]?ungen wer, halige sprsece,

deop serende ....

• ••• •••*

435 Swa reordode rseda gemyndig
548) manna mildost, mihtum swiSed,

hludan stefne ; here stille bad

witodes willan, wundor ongeton,

modiges muShsel ; he to msenegum sprgec :
440 * Micel is ]?eos menigeo, maegenwisa trum,
553) 'fullesta mabst, se 5as fare laldeS,

' hafaS us on Cananea cyn gelyfed

' burh ond beagas, brade rice,

{ wile nu gelsestan ]?aet he lange gehet
445 (niid aSsware, engla Drihten,
558) 'in fyrndagum fsederyncynne,

' gif ge gehealdaS halige lare,

' ]?set ge feonda gehwone forS ofergangaS,

'gesittaS sigerice be ssem tweonum,
4^0 ' beorselas beorna ; biS eower bljed micel.'
563) ^Efter j?am wordum werod wses on salum,

416. deajje S. , Sa )>e MS. 417. onfeond. 420. huru fseSmum.

442. MS. has ufonfor us on.

H

98 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

sungon sigebyman, segnas stodon
on faegerne sweg. Folc waes on lande ;
haefde wuldres beam werud gelaeded,
455 halige heapas, on hyld Codes.
(568) Life gefe(g)on, J?a hie oSlseded haefdon

feorh of feonda dome, ]?eah Se hie hit frecne geneSdon,

weras under waetera hrofas. Gesawon hie J>aer weallas standan ;

ealle him brimu blodige buhton, ]?urh ba heora beadosearo

wsegon.

460 HreSdon hildespelle, siSSan hie Mm wiSforon,
(573) h5fon here)?reatas hlude stefne

for bam daedweorce — Drihten heredon —
weras wuldres sang, wif on oSrum,
folcsweota maest, fyrdleoS g^lan
465 aclum stefnum, eallwundra fela.
(578) Pa waes eSfynde Afrisc meowle

on geofones staSe, golde geweorSod,
hand ahofon, halswurSunge,
bliSe waeron, b5te gesawon,
470 heddon herereafes — haeft waes onsasled,
(573) ongunnon saelafe segnum dselan
on ySlafe, ealde madmas,
reaf ond randas ; heo(m) on riht sceo(de)
gold ond godweb, losepes gestreon,
475 wera wuldorgesteald. Werigend lagon
(588) on deaSstede, drihtfolca mae(st).

20. CYNEWULF

Four of the best A.-S. Christian poems, Juliana^ Elene, Fates of the Apost.es ,
Crist, closely akin in treatment and style, have one peculiarity in common.
Each of them contains a passage with an acrostic written in runic letters.
Besides standing for one of the significant words in the text each rune at the
same time represents a letter of the alphabet. In each poem these letters
taken together in the order in which they occur spell the name Cynewulf or
Cynwulf. The natural inference is that this is the name of the poet, who
wished in this way to perpetuate his memory. His identity has not been
established with certainty ; some scholars think he was the Northumbrian
bishop Cynwulf who lived in the eighth century.

In the poems attributed to Cynewulf there is comparatively little left of the

455. hild. 460. ham S., |>am MS. 464. galan.

XX. CYNEWULF 99

influence of the old heroic poetry which is so strong in Exodus and Judith,
They have a pensive and mystically tender tone which on occasion, especially
in Crist, swells into lyrical exaltation. Their author was a bookman, not a man
of action ; he is well versed in lives of saints and homilies, as well as in the
Bible. As a narrator he is clear and straightforward.

A. CRIST

The poem Crist, numbering 1693 lines, consists of three parts, dealing
respectively with the Advent, the Ascension, and the Last Judgement. The
second part, 11. 440-866, contains an acrostic giving the name of the poet ; the
latest editor, Professor A. Cook, believes they are all by Cynewulf, but that
they were not necessarily all written at the same period.

1. 11. 214-274

Eala ]?u so5a ond ]?u sibsuma

ealra cyninga cyning, Crist selmihtig,

hu )>u abr wsere eallum geworden

worulde brymmum mid bmne wuldorfaeder
5 cild acenned Jmrh his craeft ond meaht.

Nis abnig nu eorl under lyfte,

secg searo]?oncol, to J>aes swISe gleaw

be bset asecgan msege sundbuendum,

areccan mid ryhte, hu J?e rodera Weard
10 set frym<5e genom him to freobearne.

Pset waes ]mra J>inga be her ]?eoda cynn

gefrugn<?n mid folcum, a3t fruman serest

geworden under wolcnum, ]?aet witig God,

lifes ordfruma, leoht ond bystro
15 gedselde dryhtlice, ond him waes domes geweald ;

on ]?a wisan abead weoroda ealdor : —

1 Nu sie geworden for)? a to widan feore

' leoht lixende lifgendra gehwam •

']?e in cneorissum cende weorSen.'
20 Ond ]?a sona gelomp, J>a hit swa sceolde ;

leoma leohtade leoda msegjmm,

torht mid tunglum, asfter J?on tida bigong ;

sylfa sette baet ]?u sunu wsere

efeneardigende mid bmne «ngan frean

12. gefrugnen. 16. MS. has ond/or on.

1 8. lixende gefea lifgendra. 24. engan.

IOO BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

2c &* fcon oht }?isses aifre gewurde.

]>u eart seo snyttro ]?e ]?as sidan gesceaft
mid Jy> Waldende worhtes ealle.
For]?on nis genig J?aes horse, ne J>aes hygecrseftig,
]?e J?In fromcyn maege fira bearnum

30 sweotule gese]?an. Cum nu, sigores Weard,
Meotod moncynnes, ond ]?ine miltse her
arfaest ywe ; us is eallum neod
J>aet we J>in medrencynn motan cunnan,
ryhtgeryno, nu we areccan ne maegon

^^ J>83t fasdrencynn fier owihte.

PU J?isne middangeard milde geblissa
J>urh Sinne hercyme, h^elende Crist,
ond J>a gyldnan geatu ]?e in geardagum
ful longe ser bilocen stodan,

40 heofona heahfrea, hat ontynan ;

ond usic J»onne gesece, J?urh J>m sylfes gong,
eaSmod t5 eor]?an. Us is Jnnra arna J?earf.
HafaS se awyrgda wulf tostenced,
deorc d^arscua, Dryhten, ]?in eowde,
wide towrecene ; J>3et Su, Wealdend, ser
blode gebohtes, ]?3et se bealofulla
hyneS heardllce, ond him on haeft nimeS
ofer uss^; nioda lust. For]?on we, Nergend, J?e
biddaS geornlice breostgehygdum

50 l^t ^ hraedlice helpe gefremme
wergum wreccan ; j^set se wi(t)tes bona
in helle grund hean gedreose ;
ond J>m hondgeweorc, haele]?a scyppend,
mote arisan ond on ryht cuman

55 to J>am upcundan ae]?elan rice,

J?onan us ser J?urh synlust se swearta ga^st
forteah ond fortylde, >aet we, tires wone,
a butan ende sculon erm]?u dreogan,
butan ]?u usic )?on ofostlicor, ece Dryhten,

60 set J>am leodscea]?an, lifgende God,
helm alwihta, hreddan wille.

27. }>i. 44. daedscua.

48. usse. 51. wittes S.

CAMPBELL
COLLECTION

XX. CYNEWULF IOI

2. 11. 779-814

Ne ]?earf him ondrsedan deofla strselas
senig on eorSan, aelda cynnes,
gromra garfare, gif hine God scilde]?

65 duguSa Dryhten. Is ]?am dome neah,
]?aet we gelice sceolon leanum hleotan,
swa we widefeorh weorcum hlodun
geond sldne grund. Us secgaS bee
hu set serestan eadmod astag

70 in middangeard maegna Goldhord,
in faamnan fseSm, freobearn Godes,
halig of heah]?u. Huru ic wene me,
ond eac ondrsede, dom Sy refran,
Sonne eft cymeS engla ]?eoden,

75 ]?e ic ne heold teala J?set me Haelend mm
on b5cum bibead. Ic j^aes br5gan sceal
geseon synwrsece, ]?aes J?e ic s63 talge,
J?3sr monig(e) beo<5 on gemot laed^
fore onsyne eces deman.

80 Ponne C(en) cwacaS, gehyreS Cyning mseSlan,
rodera ryhtend sprecan rej?e word
J?am J>e him ser in worulde wace hyrdon,
J>enden Y(r) ond N(yd) y]?ast meahtan
frofre findan. Pser sceal forht monig

85 on ]?am wongstede werig bidan
hwset him aefter dsedum deman wille
wraj?ra wita. Bi]? se W(yn) scaecen
eor]?an fraetwa. tJ(re) waes longe,
L(agu)flodum bilocen lifwynna dsel,

90 F(eoh) on foldan. Ponne fraetwe sculon
byrnan on bsele ; blac rasetteS
recen reada leg, re]?e scrtyeS
geond woruld wide. Wongas hreosaS,
burgstede berstaS. Brond biS on tyhte,

95 teleS ealdgestrgon unmurnlice,

gsesta gifrast, ]?set geo guman heoldan,
]?enden him on eorj?an onmedla waes.

78.

102 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

B. ELENE
11. 1236-1276

Elene is one of the longer A.-S. poems, comprising as it does 1320 lines. It
describes in flowing narrative of a simpler style than Exodiis how by order of
the Empress Helena a search was made for the cross on which Christ was
crucified, and how it was found buried deep in the ground together with the
crosses of the two malefactors. The Cross is taken to Helena, who has it
splendidly' adorned with gold, silver, and precious stones, and commands all
believers to commemorate the happy event by a yearly festival.

The poem proper ends with 1. 1235, and ends with the word Finit. Then
follows a passage of 85 lines of which we print here the first half. These lines
are usually considered to be an autobiographical note by Cynewulf. The internal
rhymes are noteworthy in that they were written at so early a date ; they should
be compared with those of the Rhyme Poem ; see No. 23 infra.

PUS ic frod ond fus Jmrh ]?aet fsecne hus

wordcrseft(ig) wses ond wundrum laes,
100 bragum Jreodude ond ge]?onc ^eodode

nihtes nearwe. Nysse ic gearwe

be J?sere riht(an eaht), ser me rumran ge]?eaht

J»urh 5a mseran meaht on modes J>eaht

wisdom onwrah. Ic wses weorcum fah,
105 synnum asseled, sorgum gewseled,

bitrum gebunden, bisgum bej?rungen,

ser me lare onlag J>urh leohtne had,

gamelum t5 geoce, gife unscynde

Maegencyning amset ond on gemynd begeat,
no torht ontynde, tidum gerymde,

bancofan onband, breostlocan onwand,

leoSucrssft onleac ; )?8es ic lustum breac,

willum in worlde. Ic ]?3es wuldres treowes

oft nales ssne hsefde ingemynd,
1 1 5 ser ic J>set wundor onwrigen hsefde

ymb ]?one beorhtan beam, swa ic on bocum fand,

wyrda gangum, on gewritum cySan

be Sam sigebeacne. A wses s^qg- oS Sset

cnyssed cearwelmum, C(en) drusende,
120 beah he in medohealle maSmas J?ege,

se(p)plede gold ; Y(r) gnornode,

99. waes S. , waef MS. 100. neodode S. , reodode MS. 102. rihtan eaht S.

103. meaht S. , miht MS. 104. onwreah. 118. saecc.

XX. CYNEWULF I 03

N(yd)gefera, nearusorge dreah,
enge rune, ]?ser him E(oh) fore
milpaSas maet, modig Jraegde

125 wirum gewlenced. W(yn) is gesw^Srad,
gomen aefter gearum, geogocS is gecyrred,
aid onmedla ; U(r) wses geara
geogoShades glsem. Nu synt gewitene,
Hfwynne geliden, swa L(agu) toglideS,

130 flodas gefysde. F(eoh) geghwam bi'S
labne under lyfte. Landes fraetwe
gewita]? under wolcnum winde gelicost,
]?onne he for hseleSum hlud astigeS ;
wseSeS be wolcnum, wedende faereS

135 and oft semninga swige gewyrSeS,
in nedcleofan nearwe geheaSrod,
J>ream forj-»rycced.

125. geswiftrad.

V. MISCELLANEOUS

21. GNOMIC AND DIDACTIC

There are several A.-S. poems containing wise saws, sage counsels, and
short aphoristic remarks about men and things. They are so disconnected that
one is tempted to regard them as merely exercises in versification. It is,
however, more probable that the monks who wrote them were meeting the
popular taste for such saws, grouping them together by alliterating verse. On
the scanty evidence of their language, these poems are often considered to
be of early date, but such evidence is not conclusive. Indeed, the metre
if anything points to a late date, possibly well on in the tenth century.

A. THE WAYS OF CREATION

Cyning sceal rice healdan. Ceastra beotJ feorran gesyne,

orSanc enta geweorc, ]?a ]?e on bysse eorSan syndon,

wrsetlic weallstana geweorc. Wind byS on lyfte swiftust,

bunar byS bragum hludast. Pry m mas syndan Cristes myccle,
5 wyrd byS swISost Winter by<5 cealdost,

lencten hrimigost, he byS lengest ceald,

sumor sunwlitegost, swegel byt> hatost,

haerfest hreSeadegost, haeleSum bringeS

geares wsestmas, J»a ]?e him God sendeS.
10 SoS biS sww/olost, sine by5 deorost,

gold gumena gehwam, ond gomol snoterost,

fyrngearum frod, se be ser feala gebideS.

Wea biS wundrum clibbor. Wolcnu scriSaS.

Geongne se^eling sceolan gode gesISas
15 byldan to beaduwe ond to beahgife.

Ellen sceal on eorle, ecg sceal wi<5 helme

hilde gebidan. Hafuc sceal on glofe

10. swicolost. 16. hellme.

104

XXL GNOMIC AND DIDACTIC 1 05

wilde gewunian, wulf sceal on bearowe,

ea.rm anhaga, eofor sceal on holte,
20 toSmaegenes trum. Til sceal on eSle

domes wyrcean. DaroS sceal on handa,

gar golde fah. Gim sceal on hringe

standan steap ond geap. Stream sceal on yGum

me(n)cgan mereflode. Msest sceal on ceole,
25 segelgyrd seomian. Sweord sceal on bearme,

drihtlic isern. Draca sceal on hlaewe,

frod, frsetwum wlanc. Fisc sceal on wsetere

cynren cennan. Cyning sceal on healle

beagas daelan. Bera_ sceal on haeSe
30 eald ond egesfull. Ea of dune sceal

flodgrseg feran. Fyrd sceal aetsomne,

tirfaestra getrum. Treow sceal on eorle,

wisdom on were. Wudu sceal on foldan

blabdum blowan. Beorh sceal on eor]?an
35 grene standan. God sceal on heofenum

dseda demend. Duru sceal on healle,

rum recedes muS. Rand sceal on scylde,

fsest fingra gebeorh. Fugel uppe sceal

lacan on lyfte. Leax sceal on wsele
40 mid sceote scriftan. Scur sceal on heofenum

winde geblanden in ]?as woruld cuman.

Peof sceal gangan J>y strum wederum. Pyrs sceal on fenne
gewunian

ana innan lande. Ides sceal dyrne craefte,

faemne hire freond gesecean, gif heo nelle on folce ge]?eon,
45 l^set hi man beagum gebicge. Brim sceal sealte weallan,

lyfthelm ond laguflod ymb ealra landa gehwylc,

flowan firgenstreamas. Feoh sceal on eorSan

tydran ond tyman. Tungol sceal on heofenum

beorhte scman, swa him bebead Meotud.
50 God sceal wi5 yfele, geogoS sceal wiS yldo,

lif sceal wi5 dea]?e, leoht sceal wiS J?ystrum,

fyrd wiS fyrde, feond wiS oSrum,

Ia5 wi5 la]?e ymb land sacan,

synne staelan. A sceal snotor hycgean

19. earn.

106 MISCELLANEOUS

ymb J?ysse worulde gewinn ; wearh hangian,
faegere ongildan J»aet he aer facen dyde
manna cynne. Meotod ana wat
hwyder seo sawul sceal sySSan hweorfan,
ond ealle ]?a gastas ]?e for Gode hweorfaS

60 aefter deaSdaege, domes bidaS

on faeder faeSme. Is seo forSgesceaft
digol ond dyrne ; Drihten ana wat,
nergende Faeder ; nseni(g) eft cymeS
hider under hrofas, J?e ]?aet her for so5

65 mannum secge hwylc sy Meotodes gesceaft,
sigefolca gesetu, ]?£er he sylfa wunat).

B. THE GIFTS OF MEN

Fela biS on foldan forSgesynra
geongra geofona, J>a ]?a ga^stberend
wegaS in gewitte, swa her weoruda God,

70 Meotud meahtum swIS, monnum dseleS,
syleS sundorgiefe, sendeS wide
agne spede, ]?ara seghwylc mot
dryhtwuniendra dsel onfon.
Ne biS senig J?aes earfoSsselig

75 mon on moldan, ne ]?aes medspedig,
lytelhydig, ne J?ses laethydig,
J?3et hine se Argifa ealles biscyrge
modes craefta o»e maegendaeda,
wis on gewitte, o)?]?e on wordcwidum,

80 }>y lalbs (he) ormod sy ealra )?inga
J>ara ]>Q he geworhte in woruldlife,
geofona gehwylcre ; nsefre God demeS
]?aet senig eft J?aes earm geweorSe.
Naenig eft J>aes swi]?e ]?urh snyttrucraeft

85 in >eode ]?rym >isses lifes

forG gestigeS, >aet him folca Weard
}nirh his halige giefe hider onsende
wise ge]?ohtas ond woruldcraeftas,
under anes meaht ealle forlaete,

XXI. GNOMIC AND DIDACTIC

90 ]>y Ises he for wlence, wuldorgeofona ful,
mon mode swi<5, of gemete hweorfe
ond ]?onne forhycge heanspedigran.
Ac he gedseleS, se ]?e ah domes ge weald,
missenlice geond J>isne middangeard
95 leoda leoj?ocraeftas londbuendum.
Sumum her ofer eorj?an aehta onllhS,
woruldgestreona. Sum biS wonspedig,
heardsselig haele, bij? hwse]?re gleaw
modes craefta. Sum maegenstrengo

100 fur]?or onfehS. Sum freolic biS,

wlitig on waestmum. Sum biG woSbora,
giedda giffaest. Sum biS gearuwyrdig.
Sum bi5 on hunto]?e hreSeadigra,
deora drsefend. Sum dyre bi5

105 woruldricum men. Sum bi5 wiges heard,
beadocraeftig beorn, J>aer bord stunaS.
Sum in maeSle maeg modsnottera
folcrsedenne fortJ gehycgan,
]?ser witena biS worn aetsomne.

no Sum maeg wraetlice weorc ahycgan

heahtimbra gehwaes ; hond biS gelsered,
wis ond gewealden, swa bi5 wyrhtan ryht,
sele asettan ; con he sidne raeced
faeste gefegan wij? fserdryrum.

115 Sum mid hondum maeg hearpan gretan,
ah he gleobeames gearobrygda list.
Sum bi3 rynig, sum ryhtscytte,
sum leoSa gleaw, sum on londe snel,
fe}>espedig. Sum (on) fealone waeg

120 stefnan steoreS, streamrade con
weorudes wisa ofer widne holm,
]?onne saerofe snelle maegne
arum bregdaS ySborde neah.
Sum biS syndig, sum searocraeftig

125 goldes ond gimma, ]?onne him gumena weard
hate<5 him to masrjmm maJ?J»um renian.
Sum maeg waepenjpraece, wlge to nytte
modcraeftig smiS, monige gefremman,

108 MISCELLANEOUS

Jxmne he gewyrceS to wera hilde
130 helm oj?]?e hupseax oSSe hea]?ubyrnan,

scirne mece, oSSe scyldes rond

faeste gefegan wiS flyge gares.

Sum biS arfsest ond aelmesgeorn,

}?eawum ge]?yde. Sum biS J>egn gehweorf
135 on meoduhealle. Sum biS meares gleaw,

wic(g)crsefta wis. Sum gewealdenmod

J>afaS in gefylde ]?aet he ]?onne sceal.

Sum domas con, f»3er dryhtguman

rsed eahtiaS. Sum biS hrsedtsefle.
140 Sum biS gewittig set wm]?ege,

beorhyrde god. Sum biS bylda til

ham to h^bb^nne. Sum biS heretoga,

fyrdwisa from. Sum bi]? folcwita.

Sum bfy aet ]?earf(e) J>risthydigra
T45 J'egn mid his )?eodne. Sum ge]?yld hafaS,

faestgongel ferS. Sum biS fugelbona,

haefeces craeftig. Sum biS to horse hwaet.

Sum bi5 swISsnel, hafaS searolic gomen,

gleodseda gife for gum]?egnum,
150 leoht ond leo]?uwac. Sum biS leofwende,

hafaS mod ond word monnum ge]?w£ere.

Sum her geornlice gsestes J>earfe

mode bewinde]? ond him Metudes ej-t

ofer eorSwelan ealne geceoseS.
155 Sum biS deormod deofles gewinnes

biS a wiS firenum in gefeoht gearo.

Sum craeft hafaS circnytta fela,

maeg on lofsongum lifes Waldend

hlude hergan, hafaS healice
1 60 beorhte stefne. Sum biS boca gleaw,

larum leo]?ufaest. Sum bi)? listhendig

to awritanne wordgeryno.

Nis nu ofer eor]?an senig monna

mode J?aes craeftig ne ]?aes maegeneacen
165 J?aet hi(m) gefre anum ealle weorj?en

gegearwade, )>y laes him gilp sceSSe,

142. habbenne. 153. eft.

XXI. GNOMIC AND DIDACTIC 109

obbe fore bggre maerbe mod astige,
gif he hafab ana ofer ealle men
wlite ond wisdom ond weorca blaM.

170 Ac he missenlice monna cynne
gielpes styreS ond his giefe bryttaS
sumum on cystum, sumum on crseftum,
sumum on wlite, sumum on wige ;
sumum he syleS monna milde heortan,

175 beawfaestne geboht, sum bib beodne hold.
Swa weorSHce wide tosaweS
Dryhten his dugube ; a bses dom age,
leohtbasre lof, se us bis lif giefeS
ond his milde mod monnum

C. A FATHER'S ADVICE

It is possible, as Brandl suggests (G.E.L. p. 962), that these lines, obviously
written by a cleric, were intended for the instruction of a young prince or noble
(freobearn).

1 80 Dus frod fseder freobearn Iserde,

modsnottor (mon), mag^cystum eald,

wordum wisfsestum, )?set he wel ]?unge : —

1 Do a j?aette duge ; deag bin gewyrht ;

' God ]?e biS symle goda gehwylces

'frea ond fultum, feond j?am o]?rum

' wyrsan gewyrhta. Wene bee ]?y betran ;

' efn elne ]?is a benden bu lifge.

' Faeder ond modor freo bu mid heortan,

' maga gehwylcne, gif him sy Meotud on lufan.
190 'Wes bu blnum yldrum arfeest symle,

4 faegerwyrde, ond J>e in ferSe laet

* }?ine lareowas leofe in mode,

' ba bee geornast to gode trymmen.'

Faeder eft his sunu frod gegrette
195 obre sibe : * Heald elne )>is :

' ne freme firene, ne nsefre freonde binum,

4 msege man ne ge]?afa, ]?y laes bee Meotud oncunne
181. magacystum. 183. gewyrhtu.

I 10 MISCELLANEOUS

' ]?aet J?u sy wommes gewita ; he ]?e mid wite gielde<5,
' swylce ]?am 6]?rum mid eadwelan.'
200 Driddan si}>e Jxmcsnottor guma
breostgehygdum his beam labrde :

* Ne gewuna wyrsan widan feore

' sengum sehta, ac }>u J>e anne genim

' to gesprecan symle spella ond lara
205 ' rsedhycgende ; sy ymb rice swa hit msege.'

Feor]?an siSe fseder eft Iserde

modleofne magan J»3st he gemunde ]?is :

' Ne aswic sundorwine, ac a symle geheald

1 rihtum gerisnum ; raefn elne ]?is,
210 *J>3et J>u nsefre fsecne weorSe freonde J^inum.'

Fiftan si]?e faeder eft ongon

breostgejxmcum his beam Iseran :

1 Druncen beorg ]?e ond dollic word,

{ man on mode ond in muj?e lyge,
215' yrre on(i sefste ond idese lufan ;

{forj»on sceal sewiscmod oft sij>ian,

* se )?e gewiteS in wifes lufan,

* fremdre meowlan ; J^ser bi5 a firena wen,
1 la,51icre scome, long niS wi5 God,

220 'geotende gielp. Wes Ipu a giedda wis,

' wser wiS willan, worda hyrde.'

Siextan si]?e swses eft ongon

]?urh bliSne gej^oht his beam Iseran :

' Ongiet georne hwaet sy god oj?]?e yfel,
225 'ond toscead simle scearpe mode

' in sefan J>mum, ond J?e a J?aet selle geceos ;

1 a ]?e biS gedaeled, gif )?e deah hyge ;

' wunaS wisdom in, ond Jms wast geare

' ondgit yfles ; heald J>e elne wiS ;
230 ' feorma J?u symle in J>mum ferSe god.'

Seofe)?an sij?e his sunu laerde

faeder, frod guma, saegde fela geongum :

' Seldan snottor guma sorgleas blissaS,

* swylce dol seldon drymeS sorgful

235 ' ymD n^s forSgesceaft, nefne he fseh]?e wite.

215. aefeste.

XXI. GNOMIC AND DIDACTIC I I I

c Waerwyrde sceal, wisfsest haele,

' breostum hycgan, nales breahtme hlud.'

Eahto]?an sif»e eald faeder ongon

his mago monian mildum wor-dum :
240 ' Leorna lara Isergedefe,

' wene ]?ec in wisdom weoruda Scyppend,

' hafa ]?e to hyhte haligra gemynd,

' ond a so5 to sige, J>onne J?u secge hwset.'

Nige]?an stye nsegde se gomola,
245 eald uftwita, saegde eaforan worn :

1 Is nu fela folca ]?2ette fyrngewritu

'healdan wille, ac him hyge brosnaS,

' ellen colaS, IdlaS ]?eodscipe ;

' ne habba<5 wiht for }?3et, ]?eah hi wo/z don
250 * ofer Meotudes bibod ; monig sceal ongieldan

' sawol susles. Ac laet f>inne sefan healdan

{ forS fyrngewritu ond Frean domas,

1 ]?a }>Q her on msegSe gehw^r men forlseta})

{swi]?or asigan ]?onne him sy sylfum riht.'
255 Teo]?an si]?e tornsorgna ful

eald eft ongon eaforan laeran :

* Snyttra bruce]? ]?e fore sawle lufan

' warnaS him wommas worda ond dseda
{ on sefan symle, ond so]? fremeS :
260 ' biS him geofona gehwylc gode geyced,
' meahtum spedig, J»onne he man flyhS.

* Yrre ne Iset J>e £efre gewealdan

* heah in hre]?re, heoroworda grund

' wylme bismitan, ac him warnaS J^aet
265 ' on geheortum hyge. Haele sceal wlsfaest,

c (milde) ond gemetlic, modes snottor,

' gleaw in gehygdum, georn wisdomes ;

' swa he wiS seldu maeg eades hleotan.

' Ne beo }>u no to t^lende ne to tweosprsece,
270 ' ne ]>e on mode last men to fraco]?e,

' ac beo leofwende ; leoht on gehygdum

1 ber breostcofan. Swa ]?u, mm beam, gemyne

' frode faederlare ond }?ec a wiS firenum geheald.'

249. worn. 253. gehwoere. 261. mon. 266. gemetlice. 268. aelda.

I I 2 MISCELLANEOUS

22. RIDDLES

Enigmas and riddles must have been current among the people of all
countries ages before they were put into writing. Collections of riddles written
in Latin verse have been preserved, the earliest of which is that of Symphosius,
a continental writer. Their composition was a favourite recreation of learned
men in the early Middle Ages, and it is well known that some of the most
eminent Anglo-Saxon churchmen wrote riddles, for example Aldhelm, bishop of
Sherborne, in the seventh century, and Tatwine, archbishop of Canterbury,
Eusebius, abbot of Wearmouth, Bonifatius, and Alcuin, archbishop of York, in
the eighth century. A collection of riddles is also ascribed to Bede. All these
writers used Latin verse. A collection of over ninety A.-S. riddles has been
preserved in the Exeter Book, which while owing a good deal to the Latin
collections, especially to those of Aldhelm and Symphosius, for their inspiration
and method, undoubtedly include much that is native and popular. For a long
time the authorship of this collection was ascribed to Cynewulf, but scholars are
now inclined to abandon the theory of single authorship. Some of the poems
usually included in the riddles of the Exeter Book are not riddles at all ; others
are descriptions rather than riddles.

The authors of the riddles often write with vigour and liveliness, and with
a zest which shows that they enjoy the freedom of the literary genre as well as
the pleasure of baffling the guesser. Some of the descriptions are remarkably
fine, e.g. that of the hurricane, the second of our selections. The traditional
vocabulary and phraseology of the earlier poetry are occasionally employed, but
there is no trace of pre-Christian folk-lore. The pessimistic moralizing of so
many A. -S. poems is refreshingly absent ; Brandl may be right in thinking that
these riddles were intended for the amusement of the polite society of courts,
conceivably also, we may add, of monasteries.

Judging by their language and versification the A.-S. Riddles would seem to
belong to various periods. Some of the earliest, dating from the eighth century,
must have been written in the Northumbrian dialect.' The original version of
one of them (Q- 2) has been preserved.

A (RiD. i)

Hwylc is hselejm )?32S horse ond )?aes hygecraeftig
J>set J>aet maege asecgan, hwa mec on si<5 wrsece,
Jxmne ic astige strong, stundum re]?e,
Jrymful Jnmie, J»ragum wrsefre,
5 fere geond foldan, folcsalo baerne,
reced reafige ? Recas stigaS
haswe ofer hrSfum, hlin biS on eorjmn,
waelcwselm wera. J»onne ic wudu hrere,
bearwas bledhwate, beamas fylle
10 hdme gehrefed, heahum mean turn

4. wraece. 10. helme S, , holme MS.

XXII. RIDDLES I I 3

wrec^n on waj?e, wide sended.

Haebbe me on hrycge ]?aet ser hadas wreah

foldbuendra, flaesc ond gsestas

somod on sonde. Saga hwa mec ]?ecce,

o]?J?e hu ic hatte, >e >a hlaest here.

B (Rm. 3)

Hwilum mec mm frea faeste genearwaS,
sende<5 ]?onne under sablwonge

bearm (on) bradan, ond on bid wriceS,

J?rafa3 on J?ystrum J?rymma sumne,
20 ha3st(e) on enge, ]?£er me he^rd siteS

hruse on hrycge ; nah ic hwyrftweges

of )?am aglace, ac ic e]?elstol

haslej^a hreru ; hornsalu wagiaS,

wera wicstede ; weallas beofiaS
25 steape ofer stiwitum. Stille ]?ynce5

lyft ofer londe, ond lagu swige,

oj?]?aet ic of enge up a]?ringe,

efne swa mec wisaS se mec wr£e3re on

set frumsceafte fur]?um legde,
30 bende ond clomme, >83t ic onbugan ne mot

of ]?8ss gewealde J»e me wegas tsecneS.

Hwilum ic sceal ufan y]?a wregan,

(streamas) styrgan, ond to sta>e ]?ywan

flintgrsegne flod ; famig winneS
35 wseg wiS wealle ; wonn ariseS

dun ofer dype, hyre deorc on last

eare geblonden 6]?er fereS

]?3et hy gemittaS mearclonde neah,

hea hlincas. Peer biS hlud wada,
40 brimgiesta breahtm ; bidaS stille

stealc(e) stanhleo]?u streamgewinnes,

hopgehnastes, >onne heah ge>ring

on cleofu cryde> ; >2er biS ceole wen

sli]?re S33cce, gif hyne sse byreS

ii. wrecan. I7> salwonge.

20. hastst ; heord. 28. wraede. 39. wada S., wudu MS.

I

114 MISCELLANEOUS

45 on J?a grim man tid gsesta fulne,

]?aet he scyle rice birofen weor]?an,

feore bifohten, faemig ridan

y>a hrycgum ; J^aer bi5 egsa sum

aeldum geywed ]?ara ]?e ic hyran sceal,
50 strong on stiSweg ; hwa gestilleS J>aet ?

Hwilum ic )?urhn£se ]?set me on baece rldeS,

won wsegfatu, wide to]?ringe

lagustreama full, hwilum laete eft

slupan tosomne. Se biS swega maest,
55 breahtma ofer burgum, ond gebreca hludast,

)?onne scearp cymeS sceo wij? 6]?rum,

ecg wi5 ecge ; e^rpan gesceafte

fus ofer folcum fyre sw^/aS,

blacan Hge, ond gebrecu feraS
60 deorc ofer dreo/^um gedyne micle,

faratS feohtende, feallan IsetaS,

sweart sum send#(5) seaw of bosme,

waetan of wombe. Winnende fareS

atol eoredjreat ; egsa astigeS,
65 micel modjrea, monna cynne,

brogan on burgum, ]?onne blace scotaS

scrij>ende scin scearpum wsepnum.

Dol him ne ondrabdeS Sa deaSsperu,

swylteS hwae]?re, gif him s5<5 Meotud
70 on geryht^ (forS) ]?urh regn ufan

of gestune labteS straele fleogan,

farende flan ; fea ]?set gedygaS

]?ara ]?e gergeceS rynegiestes waepen.

Ic ]?ses orleges or anstelle,
75 jxmne gewite wolcengehnaste

]?urh ge]?raec )?rmgan ]?nmme micle

ofer b^rnan bosm ; biersteS hlude

heah hloSgecrod ; >onne hnige eft

under lyfte helm londe near
80 ond me (on) hrycg hlade J>3et ic habban sceal,

57. earpan. 58. swselaS S. , swaetatJ MS. 60. dreontum.

62. sum sendaS S., sum sendu MS. 66. scotaS S., scotiaS MS.

70. geryhte forS 5. , geryhtu MS. 77- byrnan.

XXII. RIDDLES I I 5

meahtum gemanad mines frean.
Svva ic ]?rymfiil ]?eow ]?ragum winne,
hwilum under eor]?an, hwilum y]?a sceal
hean underhmgan, hwilum holm ufan,
85 streamas styrge, hwilum stlge up,
wolcnfare wrege, wide fere
swift ond swi]?freom. Saga hwset ic hatte,
o]?]?e hwa mec rsere, }?onne ic restan ne not,
o]?]?e hwa mec stae5)?e, J>onne ic stille beom.

C (RID. 12)

90 Fotum ic fere, foldan slite,

grene wongas, ]?enden ic gaest here.
Gif me feorh losaS, faeste binde
swearte Wealas, hwilum sellan men.
Hwilum ic deorum drincan selle

95 beorne of bosme ; hwilum mec bryd triedeS
felawlonc fotum ; hwilum feorran broht
wonfeax Wale wegeS ond J>yS,
dol druncmennen, deorcum nihtum
wseteS in wastre, wyrmeS hwilum
100 fa3gre to fyre ; me on faeSme stica]?
hygegalan hond, hwyrfeS geneahhe,
swifeS me geond sweartne. Saga hwset ic hatte,
]?e ic lifgende lond reafige,
ond 83fter dea]?e dryhtum }?eowige.

D (RID. 15)

105 Hals is mm hwit ond heafod fealo,
sidan swa some ; swift ic eom on fe]?e,
beadowsepen bere ; me on baece standaS
her, swylce sue on hleorum ; hlifiaS tu
earan ofer eagum ; ordum ic steppe

no in grene grass. Me bi8 gyrn witod
gif mec onhsele 2,n onfindeS
waelgrim wiga, ]?ser ic wic buge,
bold mid bearnum, ond ic bide J?abr

87. swij)feorm.

Il6 MISCELLANEOUS

rnid geogutScnosle, hwonne gaest cume
115 to durum minum ; him bij> deaS witod.

For]?on ic sceal of e51e eaforan mine

forhtmod fergan, fleame nergan,

gif he me aefterweard ealles weorj?eS ;

hi ne ber(i)a5 breost. Ic his bldan ne dear,
120 re]?es on geruman — ne ic ]?aet rsed teale-

ac ic sceal fromlice fe]?emundum

Jmrh steapne beorg strsete wyrcan.

EaJ?e ic mseg freora feorh genergan,

gif ic mot m^egburge mine gelsedan
125 on degolne weg ]?urh dune J>yrel,

swsese ond gesibbe ; ic me si]?]?an ne f>earf

waelhwelpes wig wiht onsittan,

gif se nISscea]?a nearwe stige

me on swaj»e sece]? ; ne tosjelej? him
130 on J>am gegnpa]?e guj>gemotes,

si]?]?an ic f>urh hylles hrof gersece,

ond J»urh h^st hrino hildepilum

laSgewinnum ]?am )?e ic longe fleah.

E (RID. 22)

^Etsomne cwom siextig monna
!35 to W8egstse]?e wicgum ridan ;

haefdon endlefen eoredmaecgas

firdhengestas, feower sceamas.

Ne meahton magorincas ofer mere feolan

swa hi fundedon, ac wses flod to deop,
14° atol y]?a gejraec, ofras hea,

streamas stronge. Ongunnon stigan ]?a

on waegn weras j ond hyra wicg somod,

hlodan under hrunge ; ]?a ]?a hors oSbaer,

e(o)h ond eorlas, aescum dealle,
145 ofer wsetres byht waegn to lande,

swa hine oxa ne teah ne esna maegen,

119. hi ne beriaS breost S. , hine beraS breost MS.

120. ne ic S. , nele MS. 124. msegburge mot. 132. hest.
137. fridhengestas. 144. eh.

XXII. RIDDLES I I 7

ne fset hengest, ne on flode sworn,
ne be grunde wod gestum under,
ne lagu drefde, ne on lyfte fleag,
150 ne under baec cyrde ; brohte hwaej^re

beornas ofer burnan, ond hyra bloncan mid,
from staeSe heaum, J>aet hy stopan up
on o)?erne, ellenrofe
weras of waege, ond hyra wicg gesund.

F (RiD. 32)

I55 Is J>es middangeard missenlicum

wisum gewlitegad, wrsettum gefrsetwad ;

sijmrn sellic ic seah searo hweorfan,

grindan wi5 greote, giellende faran ;

ngefde sellicu wiht syne ne folme,
1 60 exle ne earmas, sceal on anum fet

searoceap swifan, swij^e feran,

faran ofer feldas, haefde fela ribba ;

muS waes on middan, moncynne nyt ;

fere(S) foddurwelan, folcscipe dreogeS,
165 wist in wigeS, ond werum gieldeS

gaful geara gehwam, j?aes ]?e guman brucaS

rice ond heane. Rece, gif J»u cunne,

wis, worda gleaw, hwset sio wiht sie.

G (RiD. 35) •;

1

Mec se waeta wong wundrum freorig
170 of his innate ser<?st cende.

Ne wat ic mec beworhtne wulle flysum,

hserum ]?urh heahcraeft, hyge}>oncum in.

Wundene me ne beoS wefle, ne ic wearp hafu,

ne Jmrh J>reata ge]?racu ]?rsed me ne hlimmeS,
175 ne aet me hrutende hrisil scrIJ>eS,

ne mec ohwonan sceal am cnyssan.

Wyrmas mec ne awsefan wyrda craeftum,

164. feretJ S. 170. aerist. 172. hyge]>oncum min. 176. amas.

I I 8 MISCELLANEOUS

]?a J>e geolo godwebb geatwum frsetwaS.
Wile mec mon hwse]?re sej>eah wide ofer. eor]?an
1 80 hatan for haelejmm hyhtlic gewsede.
Saga soScwidum, searo]>oncum gleaw,
wordum wlsfaest, hwset ]?is gewaide sy.

The following is a much earlier Northumbrian text of this riddle, written at
the end of a Latin MS. (Voss. Q. 106, fol. 246), in the Leiden University
Library. Some of the words and letters which are damaged or illegible are
enclosed in square brackets. The language and spelling should be compared
with those of Ccedmon's Hymn (No. 17 Ai) and Bede's Death-Song (No. 17 B).

Mec se ueta uong uundrum freorig
i joa ob his innaSae serest caend[ae].

NI uuat ic mec biuorthae uullan fiiusum,

herum Serh hehcraeft higido[n]cum [in].

Uundnae me ni biaS ueflag, ni ic uarp hefse,

ni Serih Srea[t]un giSraec Sret me hlimmith,
1750 ne me hrutendi hrisil scelfaeS,

ni mec 6u[ua]n[a] aam sceal cnyssa.

Uyrmas mec ni auefun uyrdi craeftum,

8a Si goelu godueb geatum fraetuath.

Uil mec hudrae suae Seh iridse ofaer eorSu
i8o« hatan mith heliSum hyhtlic giusede.

Ni anoegu n(a) ic me aerigfaerae egsan brogum,

Seh Si ni[maen flanas fracjadlicae ob cocrum.

H (Rm. 39)

Gewritu secgaS ]?83t seo wiht sy
mid moncynne miclum tidum

185 sweotol ond gesyne; sundorcraeft hafaS
maran micle ]?onne hit men witen.
Heo wile gesecan sundor geghwylcne
feorhberendra, gewiteS eft feran on weg ;
ne biS hio nsefre niht J?aer 6]?re,

190 ac hio sceal wideferh wreccan laste

anoegun.

XXII. RIDDLES I I 9

hamleas hweorfan ; no ]?y heanre bij?.

Ne hafaS hio fot ne folm, ne Eefre foldan hran,

ne eagen<2 (hafaS) signer twega,

ne muS hafa]? ne wi]? monnum spraec,
195 ne gewit hafa<5, ac gewritu secgaS

f>aet seo sy earmost ealra wihta

J>ara ]>e sefter gecyndum cenned wabre.

Ne hafaS hio sawle ne feorh, ac hio styas sceal

geond J>as wundorworuld wide dreogan.
200 Ne hafaS hio blod ne ban, hwsefre bearmim wear<5

geond }?isne middangeard mongum to frofre.

Nsefre hio heofonum hran ne to helle mot ;

ac hio sceal wideferh Wuldorcyninges

larum lifgan. Long is to secganne
205 hu hyre ealdorgesceaft setter gongeS,

wohwyrda gesceapu ; J>3et (is) wrsetlic J>ing

to gesecganne ; so5 is seghwylc

]?ara ]?e ymb ]?as wiht wordum becne?5 ;

ne hafaS heo ^nig lim, leofa]? efne se)?eah.
210 Gif J>u maege r^selan recene gesecgan

sojnim wordum, saga hwset hio hatte.

I (Rio. 55)

Ic seah in heall(e), }>3*r haeleS druncon,

on flet beran feower cynna :

wr^etlic wudutreow ond wunden gold,
215 sine searobunden, ond seolfres dabl,

ond rode tacn, ]?aes us to roderum up

hlsedre raerde, ser he helwara

burg abrxce. Ic ]?ses beames maeg

ea]?e for eorlum se]?elu secgan ;
220 J^aer wses hlin ond ac, ond se hearda iw,

ond se fealwa holen. Frean sindon ealle

nyt setgsedre, naman habbaS anne,

wulf heafodtreo ; ]?set oft wsepen ahead

his mondryhtne, maSm in healle,

193. eagene. 210. reselan.

223. -heafed-. abead 5. , absed MS.

I2O MISCELLANEOUS

225 goldhilted sweord. Nu me gieddes pisses
ondsware ywe, se hi(m) ne o^-mede
wordum secgan hu se wudu hatte.

23. RHYME POEM

In the earlier A.-S. verse rhyme is occasionally met with inside the alliterating
line, cf. the passage from Cynewulf's Elene (No. 20 B) ; but its use may be
regarded as a whim of the poet. Clearly it formed no part of the traditional
technique of A.-S. versification. In the verse of the tenth century rhyme begins
to occur more frequently in the alliterating verse, but it never rises above a
humble role during the whole period when the alliterating verse was written.
The familiar rhyming Latin hymns may have prompted ecclesiastical writers of
A.-S. verse to imitation ; it is also not unlikely that rhyming was used in proverbs
and popular verse. The Rhyme Poem, consisting of eighty-seven lines, of which
we here give the first portion, is interesting as an experiment on a considerable scale
in a new and difficult technique already utilized to a slight extent. A number
of the words used occur nowhere else ; the general theme is the familiar one of
regret for past happiness. The sense is frequently sacrificed to the rhyme.

Me Hfes onlah se ]?is leoht onwrah,

and ]?aet torhte get^h, tillice onwrah.

Glaed waes ic gliwum, glenged hiwum

blissa bleoum, blostma hiwum.
5 Secgas mec segon, symbel ne alegon,

feorhgiefe gefegon ; fraetwed vregon

wic(g) ofer wongum wennan gongum

lisse mid longum leoma getongum.

Pa waes waestmum aweaht, wor(u)ld ons/re(a)ht,
10 under roderum areaht, rsedmaegne oferbeaht.

Giestas gengdon, ge/scype mengdon,

lisse lengdon, lustum glengdon.

Scrifen scrad, glad ]?urh gescad in brad ;

W83S on lagustreame lad, J?aer me leq/ii ne biglad.
15 Hsefde ic heanne had ; ne waes me in'healle gad,

J>aet J>ser rof weor(u)d rad ; oft }?aer rinc gebad ;

]?set he in sele ssege sincgewaege

]?egnum ge]?yhte. Penden ic waes (on) hyhte ;

horsce mec heredon, hilde generedon,
20 faegre feredon, feond^w biweredon.

225. Jjisses gieddes. 226. him ne ormede S., hine on mede MS.

2. geteoh. 6. wsegum. 9. onstreaht S., onspreht MS. n. gepscype 5. ,
gerscype MS. 14. leofu S. , leojju MS. 18. waes ic msegen. 20. feondon.

XXIII. RHYME POEM I 2 I

Swa mec hyhtgiefu heold, hygedryht befeold ;

sta]?ol32htum ste<?ld, stepegongum weold ;

swylce eor]?e 61, ahte ic ealdorstol,

galdorwordum gol ; gomel sibbe ne ofol,
25 ac waes g(i)ef(f)<«st ger, gellende sner,

wuniendo wser, wilbec bescaer.

Scealcas wseron scearpe, scyl waes hearpe,

hlude hlynede, hleo]x)r dynede,

sweglrad swinsade, swi]?e ne minsade ;

burgsele b/fade, beorht hlifade.

Ellen eacnade, ead beacnade,

freaum frodade, fromum godade ;

mod maegnade, mine faegnade,

treow telgade, tir welgade,

blsed blissade, (bleo glissade);

gold gearwade, gim hwearfade,

sine searwade, sib nearwade.

From ic waes in fraetwum, freolic in geatwum ;

waes mm dream dryhtlic, drohtat) hyhtlic.
40 Foldan ic freo]x)de, folcum ic leo]?ode ;

lif waes mm longe leodum in gemonge,

tirum getonge, teala gehonge.

24. LATE A.-S. AND TRANSITIONAL VERSE

The following poem, which occurs in two MSS. of the A.-S. Chronicle (C
and D] anno 1065, is the last surviving example of the traditional alliterating
verse. The versification is fairly correct, judged by the earlier standard, more
correct than that of the Battle of Maldon and the Fight at Finnsburh.

Her Eadward kingc, Engla hlaford,
sende so]?fae[ste] sawle to Criste,
on Codes wsere gast haligne.
He on worulde her wunode Jrage,
5 on kyne]?rymme, craeftig raeda,
feower and twentig freolic wealdend
wintra gerimes weolan brytnode ;

22. steald. 24. ofoll.

25. gefest, gear. 30. beofode.

38. in in geatwum.

122 MISCELLANEOUS

and healfe tid haelefta wealdend

weold welge]mngen Walum and Scottum
10 and Bryttum eac, byre .ZESelredes,

Englum and Sexum, oretmaegcum.

Swa ymbclyppa'S ceald(e) brymmas,

]?a3t call Eadwarde, aeSelum kinge,

hyrdon holdlice hagestealde menn.
15 Wses §, blitJemSd bealuleas kyng,

J?eah he lang(e) ser lande bereafod

wunode wrseclastum wide geond eorSan,

sySSan Cnut ofercom kynn

and Dene weoldon deore rice
20 Englalandes, eahta and twentig

wintra gerimes welan bry(t)nodan.

SySSan for5 becSm freolice in geatwum

kyningc kystum god, clsene and milde,

Eadward se aeSela e5el bewerede,
25 land and leode, o5 ]?2et lungre becom

dea5 se bitera, and swa deore genam,

se]?elne of eorSan. Englas feredon

so]?faeste sawle innan swegles leoht

and se froda swa]?Sah befaeste J?aet rice

heahjmngenum menn, Harolde sylfum,

se)?elum eorle, se in ealle tid

hyrde holdlice haerran slnum

wordum and d£edum ; wihte ne agselde

J>aes J>e J?earf wses )?3es )?eodkyninges.

B

The so-called ' poetical prose,' mainly ' trochaic ' and ' dactylic ' in rhythm,
of which the earliest dated example occurs in the A.-S. Chronicle anno 959
(Laud MS.), and which became more and more used, made great use of
assonance or weak rhymes resulting from the constant occurrence of the past
tense of weak verbs ending in -de or -den and of nouns ending in -e. As time went
on, full or ' rich ' rhyme was occasionally used. We give first a specimen from
the entry anno 959 :

And Codes lage smeade oft and gelome,
and Codes lof rserde wide and side,
and wislice rsedde, oftost a simle,
for Code and for worulde, ealle his J>eode.

XXIV. LATE A.-S. AND TRANSITIONAL VERSE 123

In the entry anno 975 (Laud MS.) occur the lines :

Nses se flota swa rang
ne se here swa strang.

In the year 1036 (MS. C) we find :

Sume hi man wiS feo sealde,
sume hreowlice acwealde,
sume hi man bende,
sume hi man blende . . .
Se ae]?eling lyfode J>a gyt,
selc yfel man him gehet,
o<S ]?aet man geraedde
]?set man hine laedde
to Eligbyrig swa gebundenne.

In the famous annal of 1087 (Laud MS.), where the writer is describing the
character and deeds of the Conqueror, he breaks out into a rugged metre with
rhyme fairly well established.

Se cyning wses swa swiSe stearc

and benam of his underbeoddan manig mearc

goldes and ma hundred punda seolfres ;

Saet he nam be wihte

and mid mycelan unrihte

of his landleode,

for littelre neode.

He waes on gitsunge befeallen,

and graedinesse he lufode mid ealle.

He saette mycel deorfriS,

and he laegde lage J?aerwi(5,

J>aet swa hwa swa sloge heort oSSe hinde

J»8et hine man sceolde blendan.1

He forbead >a heortas, swylce eac J»a baras ;

1 blendian.

124 MISCELLANEOUS

swa swiSe he lufode J?a headeor
swilce he waere heora fseder.
Eac he saette be bam haran
beet hi mosten freo faran.

His rice men hit maendon, and ba earme men hit becearodan,

ac he (wses) swa stift

]?aet he ne rohte heora eallra ni5 ;

ac hi moston mid ealle )?es cynges wille folgian, gif hi woldon
libban oSSe land habban,

land oSSe eahta,
oSSe wel his sehta.

Walawa, baet senig man sceolde modigan swa, hine self upp
ahebban, and ofer ealle men tellan.

Se selmihtiga God cybe his saule mildheortnisse,
and do him synna forgifenesse.

In La3amon's Brut, written perhaps a century later, this doggerel has become
somewhat more regular in the number of syllables in the line, and the rhythm,
mostly of a ' trochaic ' or ' dactylic ' character, is more marked, but the rhymes
are still introduced at the fancy of the writer, casually, as it were. We take the
following lines as an example of the Brut metre :

ArStir bat iherde, wraSest kinge,

Pat Modred waes i Cornwale, mid muchele monweorede,

And ber wolde abiden bat ArSur come riden.

ArSur sende sonde 3eond al his kinelonde,

And to cumen alle hehte ]?at quic wses on londe,

Pa to vihte oht weoren, wepnen to beren ;

And whaswa hit forsete J?at be king hete,

PC king hine wolde a folden quic al forbernen.

APPENDIX ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION

§ i. The whole body of A.-S. verse which has survived, amounting
to some 30,000 lines, is with a few exceptions written in the alliterating
unrhymed metre common to the old Germanic literatures. As the early
A.-S. verse is much older than the extant verse of other Germanic
literatures, e.g. Old High German, Old Saxon, and Old Icelandic, we
may regard it as exemplifying the early technique of this style of
versification.

§ 2. Throughout the A.-S. period there was one standard form which
was adhered to on the whole with remarkable uniformity. This metre
was based on the stress-accent, i.e. the word-accent and the sentence-
accent. Quantity, or length of syllables, played an important part,
whereas the number of syllables was relatively unimportant. Thus the
A.-S. metre differed from the purely quantitative metre of Greek and
Latin verse, from the purely syllabic metre of modern French poetry
and from the syllabic, irregularly-stressed metre of most modern English
poetry.

§ 3. A.-S. verse is written in lines, each line being divided in the
middle by a caesura into two half-lines. In each half-line there are
two strongly-stressed syllables, which are usually long.1 The first syllable
of the second half-line alliterates with one (the first) or both of the
stressed syllables of the first half-line, i.e. it begins with the same
sound ; each consonant alliterates with itself only ; any vowel alliterates
with any other vowel.

§ 4. We take as an example the line :

vrundorltc vrcegbora wJras sctawedon

Here the strongly-stressed syllables are marked with acute accents, and
the alliterating sound, here iv, is in black type. It will be seen that the
u> of vueras alliterates with the (u> of wuldorlic and tuczgbora. But in
the line

se }>e me'regrundas "m^ngan scdlde

1 With the exception of some monosyllabic nouns, e.g. God. A short syllable
can only take a strong or a secondary stress when it immediately follows a long
syllable with a strong or secondary stress.

125

126 APPENDIX ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION

the m of mengan alliterates with only one of the two stresses of the
first half-line, viz. we're. Again, in the line

was iren &tertanum fdh

the a of atertanum alliterates with the e of ecg and the i of iren.

§ 5. In printed texts the caesura of the line is indicated by a space ;
as a rule it does not cut across a phrase-group, i.e. it would not come
between the adjective and its noun,1 or the preposition and its noun.
The lines are grouped into paragraphs of irregular length much as in
modern English blank verse, and not into stanzas ; further, enjambement
often occurs, i.e. the sense runs over from one line to the other as in
blank verse. This running-on is often, but not necessarily, carried out
by the device of using ' equivalents ' or ' kennings.' Thus in the lines

generic nu se mcera maga Healfdenes^
snottra fengel, nu ic eom si&es fus,
goldivine gumena, hivcet wit geo spracon

the phrases snottra fengel and goldivine gumena are merely equivalents
or repetitions Qimaga Healf denes.

§ 6. The strong stresses are the essential part of the alliterat-
ing metre. We further distinguish ' secondary' or half-stresses, and
' weak ' stresses or unstressed syllables. A secondary stress is indicated

X

by a grave accent, and a weak stress by a small cross, as in Idndfruma,

X

fdrft gew&t. Large numbers of compound nouns and adjectives used in

X X

A.-S. verse have the three grades of stress e.g. goldwldnce, m^rcstapa^

X

fyodsdpe, etc.

§ 7. Structurally all normal half-lines belong to one or other of five
types,2 of which the following are the simplest but not necessarily the
commonest forms :

X / X

A. ' x ' x gomban gyldan 4 1 1 .

X X

B. x ' x ' onflddes <zht 4 42.

xxx x

C. x ' ' x in gtimstole 4 112, on bearm stipes 435.

x x

D. v x leaf Idndfrtima 431, ymbsittendra 4 9.

E. ' v x ' wigbidra hUo 4 89.

§ 8. In each type variations are permissible and frequently occur.
In the first place, both strong and secondary stress may be ' resolved,'

1 Exceptions occasionally occur, especially in late verse.

2 These types were established by Professor Edward Sievers, whose researches
first placed the study of early Germanic versification on a sound basis.

APPENDIX ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION 127

i.e. the stress may be borne by two short syllables instead of by one
long one. Moreover, the number of less strongly stressed syllables
varies considerably in the types.

A. Each or both of the weaker stresses may be a secondary one, e.g.

XX X

isig ond utfus 4 33, he"ard ond hringmcel 4 237, gu&rlnc goldwlanc
Beo. 1. 1 88 1. Also the first strong stress may be followed by two or

xx x xxx

even three weak stresses, e.g. we"ox under wdlcnum 4 8, ccnne ofer

» x

yfte 4 46 ; the second strong stress is never followed by more than
one inferior stress, whether secondary or weak.

B. The first strong stress is often preceded by more than one weak

XX XX XXX X

stress, e.g. he fires frofre gebdd 4 7, op fiat him eft onwoc 4 56.
The second stress is sometimes preceded by two weak stresses, e.g.

X XX

in m&gpa gehivdm 425.

C. The first strong stress is generally preceded by more than one

XX X X X X ^ X

weak stress, e.g. hwcet we Gdr-De"na 4 I, ne hyrde ic cymlicor 4 38.
The second stress may also be preceded by two weak stresses, e.g.

XXX XI X

ficet hit on wdalle cststdd 4 8 1 .

tjt

D. The order x may be replaced by x N , e.g. fceger foldan

xx x x

bearm 4 197, lig dalle for swealg 4 182, winter y fie bele&c 4 192. The

X

first stress may be followed by a single weak stress, e.g. frofor eft

X

gelamp 4 340.

E. In place, of x we occasionally meet with v x x ',

X X

e.g. mtodosltla ofttah 4 5.

§ 9. In the first half-line, never in the second, there frequently
occurs a one-stress type, ending like an A-type in x . In this case
the strong stress is preceded by several words with weak sentence-
stress. Scholars usually regard this type as a variety of A ; they
assign strong stress to one of the words preceding the penultimate
stressed syllable, and they regard any syllable or syllables preceding
the arbitrarily assigned strong stress as being an anacrousis^ like a
' grace-note ' in music. This, however, is unnecessary ; the type is
clearly a distinct one.

§ i o. Occasionally a series of ' extended ' half-lines is met with for
several lines in succession, as in the following passage from Exodus
(No. 19, 11. 457-459)-

X X X XXXX XXX

feorh offe"onda ddme, fieah <5e hie hitfr^cne geneftdon,

XX XX XXXXX X X

wtras under watera hrofas. Gesawon hie ficsr w Dallas stdndan ;

XXX XX X XXX XX^X

ealle him brimu blodige fiuhton fiurh fia heora be'adosearo woegon.

128 APPENDIX ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION

Other examples occurr in Beo., Judith, Dream of the Cross, etc.
They may be looked upon as an extension of the A-type, often with
three strong stresses and several weak stresses at the beginning of
the half-line. Most scholars are of opinion that this form of metre is
employed to give especial solemnity to a passage.

§ n. The gradations of stress, employed in A.-S., as in all early
Germanic alliterating versification, are those which occurred in the
spoken language, i.e., they conformed to the rules of sentence-stress.
This differed greatly from the sentence-stress of modern English and
is more nearly represented by that of modern German, which in many
ways is more conservative than our language. Among the more
important rules of A.-S. verse-stress are the following :

§ 12. (a) Nouns, adjectives, infinitives, and participles take strong
stress.

(b) Verbs in the indicative, subjunctive, and imperative usually take
either secondary or weak stress, but may on occasion take strong stress.
They are, however, practically always subordinate in stress to the

XX X XX

preceding class. Examples are : heold penden lifde 457, ncenig pat

X X XX

dorste 4 93, bl&d wide sprang 4 18, fader ellor hivearf 455, ben on

x xxxxx x xxx x x

bearjn scipes 4 86, gewat him <5a se goda 4 348, gemunde oa fta

X

dre 14 349.

(c) Some adverbs take strong, others weak stress ; others again
either strong or weak, according to their position in the sentence, e.g.

XX XX XX XX

ftor gewitan 4 42, for<5 gerimed 459, wide mcerost 488, <5(zr hio

x x x x x x

sy<5<5an wdl 4 1 1 1, afre gem&nden 4 161, oft Scyld Scdfing 4 4.

(d) A preposition takes weak stress when it precedes its noun and
strong stress when it follows it, i.e. when it has an adverbial or semi-

XX X

adverbial function, e.g. gtong in gtardum 4 13, Scedelandum in 4 19,

X X X X X X X

pone pe &u mid rihte 4256, pa him mid scoldon 441.

(e) Pronouns take weak or strong stress according to their class,
and according to the presence or absence of words of stronger stress,

XXX XX X X X X X

e.g. swa he stlfa b&d 4 29, him on btarme lag 4 40, nalas hi hine

x xxxx x £ / x

l&ssan 4 43, ponne he sivulces hwcet 4 70, ne bio sivylc cwdnlic
ptaiu 4 100.

Demonstrative pronouns, which normally take weak stress, occa-

j^

sionally take so-called * rhetorical ' stress for emphasis, e.g. on poem

X^XX XX ^-X

dage pysses lifes Beo. 197, ponne pa dydon 4 44.

(/) Verbal prefixes such as ge-, on-, for-, be-, etc., take weak stress.

APPENDIX ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION 129

§ 1 3. A knowledge of the principles of A.-S. versification has enabled
scholars to amend many errors due to careless copying of MSS.

§ 14. Regarded aesthetically, the A.-S. versification can hardly be
said to please the ear of even the practised modern student. For one
thing, the choice of the various types of half-lines is arbitrary, so that
the effect produced is that of a jumble of rhythms ; thus a ' trochaic '
or A-type of half-line may be immediately followed by an ' iambic '
or B-type, a reversal of rhythm which shocks the modern ear. Occa-
sionally, however, there is a succession of A-types, which has a familiar
and pleasing effect on the ear, but such a succession is not found in
the case of the other types. The types C, D, E, are frankly unaccept-
able, they have a limping not to say a lumbering effect.

§ 15. What then could our forefathers have found pleasing in the
form of their poetry ? We must bear in mind that the alliterating verse
was chanted to the accompaniment of the harp and was not intended
to be read. It is obvious that without the harp a good deal of the artistic
effect would be lost. It is not unlikely that the strongly stressed syllables
would be reinforced by strongly sounded chords, while the secondary
stresses may have been rendered with less heavily struck chords, and
the weak stresses may have been unaccompanied or accompanied with
single notes. This, however, is pure conjecture. There was doubtless
a recognized method of accompanying the voice, and the singer himself
chanted in the traditional manner. We can form some notion of the
' flatness ' of effect of A.-S. verses read instead of sung by imagining
how some modern popular kinds of song would sound if read like
ordinary verse. Whereas our literary versification shows regularity
in the number of syllables and variety in the number and grouping of
the stresses, the A.-S. versification shows regularity in the number of
stresses and variety in their grouping. We may be quite sure that
our forefathers enjoyed their poetical form as keenly as we enjoy ours.
For every people at any given time has a verse-technique which,
being based on the normal national speech-habits, satisfies the great
majority of hearers or readers.

§ 1 6. The types A and B represent the natural rhythm of ordinary
A.-S. speech, or indeed of any language with a strongly-marked stress-
accentuation. Types D and E, and to some extent C, are in a manner
more artificial, and their . function is to admit of the use of the large
number of picturesque compound nouns and adjectives, so characteristic
of A.-S. poetry. By the end of the eleventh century the traditional
versification and poetical language no longer appealed to the ordinary
people, and exact knowledge of their technique was practically extinct
except in the monasteries. The use of compound nouns and adjectives
had now nearly disappeared and with it the need for the types D and E
and partly also C. Secondary stress consequently ceased to play a part
in verse. In the Brut^ a poem of the end of the twelfth century, the

K

130 APPENDIX ON ANGLO-SAXON VERSIFICATION

vast majority of the lines show A and B types alone, see p. 124 supra.
Towards the end of the A.-S. period prose-writers began to use a well-
marked trochaic and dactylic rhythm of the general type ( x )' x ' x ' x x ,
with assonance of weak endings. The best example of this rhythm is
the Sermo ad Anglos, which might well be regarded as verse ; cf. also
p. 122 B supra. Full rhyme is frequently though unsystematically used
in some of these writings ; see p. 123 supra, and the passage from the
Brut, p. 124. The trochaic and dactylic rhythm doubtless continued
to be used in popular, orally-delivered lays and stories and reappears
in the written, alliterating romances of the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries. It was on account of the popularity of this rhythm that
Langland employed it for his great work. The alliterating M.E. verse
is therefore to be regarded as the direct descendant, through popular
channels, of the A.-S. system of versification adapted to the changed
conditions of word- and sentence-stress of the English language. The
long line has still the caesura ; the second half line is almost exclusively
of the A-type and ends in a weak -e, or -en, -es, while the first admits of
an occasional B-type. The alliteration is more irregular than in the
A.-S. verse and the sentence-stress is noticeably different.

NOTES
I. GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

1. WIDSITH

An * indicates ' not identified."

MS. in Exeter Book, fol. 84b-S7a. Edition. The latest and by far the

best edition is by R. W. Chambers, 1912.

5. Most commentators have taken Ealhhild to be the wife of Eadgils, Widsith's
lord (1. 93). According to this view she gives the gleeman a second ring after
he has on his return home handed over to Eadgils the splendid ring given him
by Ermanric. Another view is that Ealhhild is a princess on her way to the
court of Ermanric to whom she is to be married, accompanied by her minstrel
Widsith. This interpretation rests on the word mid, ' in company with ' (1. 5).
Ealhhild thus gives Widsith a ring following the present made to the bard by her
husband the Gothic king. But if the lady's father Eadwine (1. 98) is the same
as Eadwine father of the great Longobard king ^Elfwine (Alboin) whom Widsith
claims (1. 70) to have visited, it is clear that she cannot have been the wife of
Ermanric, who lived two centuries earlier. We must not, however, expect the
poet to be strictly historical ; his imaginary traveller knows no bounds of either
place or time.

7. Hreftcyninges ". the meaning of the prefix ffred1- is obscure. It may be the
O.E. word hreft, 'fame,' 'glory,' which occurs as the first element of proper
names; cf. Hreftric, Beo. 1. 1189, and Hreftmanna, ib. 1. 445 ; or else it may
be due to ' popular etymology,' hreft supplanting an earlier form krizft, which
would correspond to the prefix in the O.N. name Reiftgotaland, and the O.Sw.
Hraiftmarar ; see also note on Hrada, 1. 120.

8. Ongle : Angel or Ongel was, as we learn from the geographical introduction
to King Alfred's Orosius, the territory occupied by the Angles before they crossed
over to Britain. It corresponded to Jutland, Zealand, and various other islands,
now Danish. The modern Angeln, a district in Slesvig, perhaps represents the
territory occupied by the original tribe, the Angli of Tacitus, before its sway
extended over other tribes. The sense of eastan Of Ongle is strictly speaking
' from the east, from Angel, ' which seems to indicate the point of view of a
writer living in England. EormanriceS : Ermanaric, the great chief of
the Ostrogoths, famous in Germanic hero-legend, who died about A.D. 375. The
epithet wra^GS WSBrlogan, ' the fierce breaker of treaties,' is in accordance
with his legendary reputation ; cf. 3 21.

13. If S6 )>e is taken as the subject of wile, the construction is unusual, being a

I 3 2 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

case of the accus. with the infin. The construction is normal, but the sense not
so good, if se J>6 Ms be taken as a rel. pron., * whose throne is to prosper.'

14. Hwala : Ettmuller's emendation for the MS. reading wala occurs in the
list of W.S. kings given in A.-S. Ckron., anno 855.

15. Alexandreas : Alexander the Great, whose legendary fame was widely
spread among the Germanic peoples. The spelling may be due to confusion
with the name Andreas.

18. JEtla : Attila, king of the Huns, who reigned from A.D. 434 to 453, was
an important figure in Germanic legend, which embodies two traditions concern-
ing him, one favourable, the other unfavourable. This is due to the fact that
among the Germanic peoples he had both allies and enemies. The Ostrogoths
were alternately friends and foes of the Huns ; their names occur together in
1. 57, also in 4 B 20, 58. Cf. also 2 6.

19. BeCCa I the treacherous Bikki of the prose Edda and the Volsnngasaga .

*Baningum. Burgendum : the Burgundians were origin-

ally settled in the E. of Germany on the Vistula and Oder, next to the Goths,
but later migrated across the Rhine. In the geographical introduction to King
Alfred's Orosius Wuifstan speaks of Burgundians as living on the coast of the
Baltic, opposite Laaland. Gifica \ the legendary founder of the Bur-

gundian dynasty, not known to history.

20. Casore, ' Caesar,' i.e. the emperor of the Eastern empire, always so
called in A.-S. literature. The name Caesar appears also in the German Kaiser
and the Russian tsar (for Kesar). *Cselic. Filinum : the Finns
are mentioned in the account of Ohthere's voyage in King Alfred's Orosius as
inhabiting the northern coastal district of Norway and supporting themselves by
fowling and fishing. They were a non-Germanic race akin to the Laplanders,
not to the modern Finns.

21. Hagena I the Hggni of the prose Edda, a figure in one of the finest
Germanic legends. In 2 he is a friend of King Guthhere.

HolmrygUIQ : either the Scandinavian Holmrygir^ a tribe of S. Norway, or
the Rugii, a tribe mentioned by Tacitus (Germania, xliii. ad fin.} as living on
the shores of the Baltic. Riigen, the large island near the mouth of the Oder,
probably owes its name to this tribe ; see 1. 69 n. Heoden I the HeSin

of Snorri's story in the prose Edda ; cf. 3 36 n. *Glominiim : there

is a river named Glommen in Norway.

22. Witta occurs in a genealogy of Hengest given by Bede, Hist. Eccles. i. 15 ;
nothing is known of him. SwSBflim : the Suevi of the Roman his-
torians, the modern Schwaben, ' Swabians,' one of the chief confederations
among the Germanic peoples, comprising many tribes scattered over a wide terri-
tory, from the Baltic to the southern limits of Germany. In the text the name
may refer to one of the northern tribes of the Suevic race. Wada \ the
famous water -giant of Germanic story, the father of Weland (Wayland) the
smith. The names of these two are found till a late period in English romance
and song ; cf. Chaucer's ' he tolde tale of Wade,' Troilus and Crcsseide, iii. 614.

Hselsinglim : probably a tribe dwelling on the S. shore of the Baltic.
The name occurs as the first element of several place-names, such as Helsingfors,
Helsingor, etc.

23. *Meaca, *Mearchealf. Myrgingum : apparently Widsith's own

tribe, also mentioned in 11. 42, 84, 96, 118. It is not clear who they were, but
there is some evidence that they inhabited N. Holstein. Hundinglim

perhaps lived on the S. shore of the Baltic.

24. Peodric, the son of Chlodwig (Clovis), ruled the Franks from A.D. 511

NOTES I 3 3

to 534. He is the Wolf-Dietrich of M. H.G. epic, which, however, draws
on a far later tradition of his deeds than that of Widsith. Theodric's son
defeated and slew the Geatish king Hygelac ; see 4 F. Froncum :

the Franks, who about 100 B.C. left the Suevic confederacy and descended the
Rhine to near the mouth. Tacitus and Pliny refer to the Franks by the name
Istaevones. In the fifth century A.D. they subjugated the territory on the left
bank of the lower Rhine, the Salian Franks settling near the mouth of the river,
and the Ripuarian Franks higher up, with Cologne as their capital. Their rule
extended as far as the Zuyder Zee and the Frisian islands ; see also 4 F-
Pyle may be a name formed from the O.E. word }>yle, 'orator,' 'court wit,'
such as was Unferth in 14 I. The O.N. form is pulr. Miillenhoff thought
that the name pyle here stands for some faithful counsellor of Theodric.

*Rondingum.

25. Breoca : the Breca who competes with Beowulf in a swimming-match ;
see 14 A. *BrondingUni : some scholars think that both Breca and
Brandingas are ' made-up ' names referring to the sea. Breki in O.Icel. poetry
means ' breaker,' and branding is still a Low German and Danish word mean-
ing 'breakers,' 'surf.' Billing occurs as a dynastic name of the early
kingdom of Saxony. It also occurs in a number of English place-names, such
as Billingsgate, Billingham, etc. Wemum : the Varini mentioned by
Tacitus (Ger mania, xl.) as dwelling near the Angles. There are several refer-
ences to them in early records and the name may possibly occur in some English
place-names, such as Warnham, Warnborough, etc.

26. *0swine. Eowum is considered by some commentators to be written
for Eaivum, which they explain as the Aviones mentioned by Tacitus immediately
before the Angles (Germ. xl.). Ytum : the Jutes. Yte, Ytas, Ytanwce.
the late W. S. forms for corresponding Anglian and Kentish forms with eo as
the stem-vowel. These people are the Jutae of Bede (Hist. EccL iv. 16), who
says they conquered and occupied the Isle of Wight and the adjacent coastal dis-
trict of Hampshire, and that they also conquered and settled in Kent. The
name of this people survived Jn the name Ytene, which in Florence of Worcester's
chronicle is given to a part of the New Forest. Bede further tells us that the
Jutes originally came from the district north of the Angles, i.e. the modern Jut-
land. After the Jutes left Jutland for Britain their place was taken by Danes
from the adjacent islands. *GefWTllf : see also 4 D.

27. Fin, the Finn of 4 D and 5, must have been a prominent figure in A.-S.
hero-legend. There were many Frisians settled in England in early A.-S.
times, and they would naturally bring their own stories. Fresna I
the Frisians inhabited the coastal district of Holland and the islands which still
bear their name. They were divided into two tribes, the West Frisians, who
with the Franks defeated and killed Hygelac (see 4 F), and the main body of the
Frisians, Finn's people. Folcwalding : Finn is called Folcwaldan sunu
in 4 D 149.

28. Sigehere : the O.N. Sigarr, a popular hero of Scandinavian legend.

Sse-Demim may mean the Danes of the islands, contrasted with those
of the south coast of Sweden, their original habitat.

29. Hnsef in Beo. is the son of Hoc and brother of Hildeburh, wife of
Finn. He is slain in a quarrel with Finn's men ; and Finn in turn is killed by
Hnasf's 'people, the Half- Danes ; see 4 D. Hocingum : Hoe's people,
the Half-Danes. The name Hoc seems to occur in some English place-names,
e.g. Hoxton. Helm : not met with elsewhere as the name of a ruler.
The Helmings are mentioned in Beo. 1. 620 as the people of Wealhtheow, wife

134 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

of the Danish king Hrothgar. Wulfingum : apparently the same as

the Wilfings or Wylfings mentioned in Beo. 11. 461, 471. The Wiilfinge formed
the bodyguard of Dietrich von Bern.

30. *Wald, *Woinglim. Pyringlim are by some scholars, e.g. by
Moller, thought to be the Thoringi, a Frankish people dwelling near the confluence
of the Rhine and Meuse, rather than the main body of the Thuringians, the
pyringas mentioned by King Alfred in his Orosius, and the Modern German
Thuringen.

31. S3Bfer5 I the same as Sigeferft in 5 25, the prefixes See- and Sige- being
confused. Sycgum, the Secgena of 5 25, have not been identified
with certainty. Sweom '. the Swedes, here and in Beo. the name of
a people inhabiting a part of S. Sweden, N. of Lakes Wetter and Wener.

OngendJ?eow : the Ongentheow of Beo. , where the story of his
war with the Geats is told at some length ; see 4 G 2.

32. *Sceafthere. Ymbrum : apparently the same as the Ymbria or
Imbria of the Latin Danish chronicles, a people inhabiting the island Fehmarn,
E. of Kiel Bay and S. of Laaland. Another view is that the Ymbre were the
Ammeri, lying between the Weser and the Ems, W. of Oldenburg ; cf. the
modern Ammerland. Sceafa : probably identical with Sceaf, the name
of the first king in the W. S. genealogy. In Beo. Scyld is called Scefing, which
seems to be formed from the name Sceaf; see 4 A 4 n. Longbeardum :
the Lombards are here thought of as living in their original home on the lower
Elbe, S. of the Angles, before they migrated south. Tacitus, in Germ, xl.,
praises their spirit of independence. The name Lombardy bears witness to
their invasion of Italy in A.D. 568 ; see also 1. 70 n.

33. *Him. Haetwerum : the Hetware of Beo. , who fought with and
defeated Hygelac and his Geats ; see 4 F. They were a Frankish tribe dwelling
on the lower Rhine near the Zuyder Zee, the Hattuarii or Attoarii of the Latin
chronicles ; see 1. 24 n. *Holen, ^Wrosnum.

34. *Hringweald, *Herefarena : these two names, like others in the poem,
may be inventions of the poet.

35. Offa I mentioned in Beo. as the husband of a bad queen ; see 4 0. The
Danish chroniclers, writing in Latin some six centuries after Widsith was com-
posed, relate the story of Offa's duel with two * Saxon ' champions on the river
Eider. Offa, who is called Uffo in the chronicles, is represented as a Danish
king. This points to an Anglian story being adapted for Danish hearers when
the Danes took the place of the Angles after the latter migrated to Britain.
Some of the incidents of the story of Offa were in later times transferred to Offa
the Mercian king. Alewih. I not known, except as a name, Alweo,
in the pedigree of Mercian kings in A.-S. Chron. Denum : see 1. 28 n.

37. ' Nevertheless he did not excel Offa in daring deeds.'

38. ac, as often, must be rendered 'for.' geslog, 'won'; cf. 1. 44.
The prefix ge- modifies the sense of the simple verb, to which it gives a
perfective meaning.

40. maran eorlscipe is a modal dative, * with greater gallantry.'

41. ane SWeorde : either ' with the sword alone ' or ' with his single sword,'
i.e. in single combat. The latter meaning suits the Danish chronicler Saxo's
version of the Offa story.

42. merce : for mearce, ' boundary,' perhaps owing to confusion with Merce,
'Mercians.' gemJBlde: either 'proclaimed,' 'declared,' or 'fixed,'
' determined,' according as we connect it with ware, ' famous,' or gemcere,
' boundary. '

NOTES I 3 5

43. Fifeldore : the river between Holstein and Slesvig ; see 2 42 n.

heoldoil : either 'observed' (the new boundary), or 'occupied.'

44. geslog : either « fixed ' (the boundary) or * won ' (territory).

45. In Beo. the feud between the Danes of Hrothgar and Hrothwulf on the
one hand and the Heathobards of Ingeld on the other is foretold by Beowulf ;
see 4 E.

47. Wicinga : the Heathobards. This word is not used with the same sense
as wicingas, which was applied in later times to the Scandinavian freebooters,
and borrowed from the O.N. vikingar^ 'men of the fjords.'

48. Ingeldes : in Beo. called 'son of Froda' ; see 4 £ 225.

49. Heorote : the great hall of Hrothgar the Danish (Scylding) king, the scene
of the events in the first part of Beo. Heaftobeardna are generally
considered to be a remnant of the Longobards, after the latter migrated south
from the lower Elbe. But this identification is not certain ; see 1. 32 n.

50. SWa has here a resumptive sense. Widsith returns to his theme after the
long digression.

53. folgade means here, as Chambers notes, ' served as a retainer ' ; cf. the noun
folgaft, ' band of retainers. '

54. Secgan Spell is probably only a variant of singan or mcenan.

56. 'How royal benefactors treated me generously.' In Beo. the word god
frequently means 'generous,' ' freely giving.' cystUHl : the d. plur.
of abstract nouns is often used adverbially ; cf. prymmum, pry&um, etc.

57. Hunum: seel. i8n. Hreft-Gotum : see 11. 7, i8n.

58. Geatum : Beowulfs people, who dwelt in S. Sweden, south of Lakes
Wener and Wetter. They are almost certainly identical with the O.N.
Gautar, who were afterwards absorbed into the Swedish kingdom ; see also 4 G.

59. Wenlum : cf. Wendla, Beo. 1. 348. These people were probably dwellers
in the N. of Jutland, though Mullenhoff identifies them with the Vandals, who
originally came from N. Germany. Waemum : see 1. 25 n.

Wicingum : see 1. 47 n.

60. GefJ>UIH I called Gifpum, Beo. 1. 2494, the Gepidae, originally from near the
mouth of the Vistula. Winedlim I the Wends, the Veneti of Tacitus
(Germ, xlvi.), a general name for the Slavs, especially for the peoples who
gradually took the place of emigrating German tribes in the N. of Germany. At
the present time the Wends, or Sorbs, as they call themselves, number under a
hundred thousand, and form a racial island half-way between Berlin and
Dresden. In King Alfred's Orosius, Weonodland, 'the land of the Wends,' is
said to extend along the S. coast of the Baltic from the Vistula as far as the

Elbe. *Gefflegum.

61. *.32nenum.

62. Seaxum : the Saxons originally occupied part of the modern Holstein
but afterwards crossed the Elbe and settled as far as the Frisian territory on the
coast of what is now called Holland. Sycgum : see 1. 3 1 n.
Sweordwerum : perhaps a ' made-up ' name ; cf. 1. 34 n.

63. *Hronum. *Deanuin (not the Danes). Hea]>o-Reamum

are mentioned in 14 A 2 1 ; they probably gave their name to Romerike, a district
E. of Christiania.

64. Pyringum : see l. 30 n. *prowendum.

65. Burgendum: seel. ign.

66. Gufthere : the O.N. Gunnar, the famous Burgundian king Gundahari, who
with most of his army was slain by the Huns in A.D. 437. This heroic battle is
the theme of one of the most famous of Germanic legends.

136 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

68. Froncum I seel. 24 n. Frysum: the West Frisians; seel. 27 n.

*Frumtingum.

69. Rugum, Glommum : see 1. 21 n. By the middle of the fifth century A.D.
the Rugii had migrated to the S. as far as Austria. Rumwalum : the
Romans. The O.E. word walk, wealh means 'foreigner,' the plur. walas
giving the modern name Wales.

70. Eatule : Italy, the Northumbrian form of Eotole, from Itole by 'back-
vowel umlaut.' ^Elfwine : Alboin, the great Longobard (Lombard)
king who invaded Italy in A.D. 568. He was assassinated in 573.

72. The meaning of this line is not clear ; lofes to wyrcenne is an unusual
construction, to wyrcenne being apparently equivalent to to iveorcum. We may
translate 'he had the readiest hand (i.e. an exceptional capacity) for winning
fame.' Dr. Chambers translates lofes to wyrcenne, 'for deed of praise,' i.e.
for rewarding his followers, wyrcenne was probably wyrcean in the original
text, as the shorter form is required by the metre (A-type) ; see Appendix,
§§ 7, 8.
75-87. These lines are clearly a late interpolation.

75. Sercingum : supposed by some to be the Saracens in the earlier sense, i.e.
the Arab tribes inhabiting the borders of the Syrian desert in N.W. Arabia.
But Sercingas may perhaps stand for Serica, S^punJ, a name given in very early
times to a country or countries in the far E. of Asia, the modern China, from
which the silkworm, 0"/ip, was brought. Seringum may be only another
form of S77pi/c?7, of which there was a short form "2/ijpes. Brandl thinks Seringum
means ' Syrians. '

76. Creacum : see 1. 20 n. Finnum : see 11. 20, 79 n. Casere :

see 1. 20 n.

78. Wala : either the Rumwalas of 1. 69, or the Gauls, who were early
Romanized.

79. Scottum I the people who, as Bede tells us, came over from Ireland to settle
in Caledonia, to which they gave their name. Peohtum, the Picts, a race
inhabiting parts of Ireland and Scotland. Authorities are not agreed as to their
origin or racial affinities. In the course of time they lost their language and
became merged in the surrounding population of Britons, Scots, and Angles.

Scride-Finnum : one of the primitive races inhabiting the extreme
north of Europe, collectively termed ' Finns ' by Greek and Latin writers. The
Scride-Finns, who dwelt in Norway, are mentioned by King Alfred in his Orosius
as dwelling N.W. of the Swedes, to the north of the 'Northmen' (Norwegians).
They probably were the ancestors of the modern Laplanders. Scride-, from
scri&an, 'slide,' refers to their use of snow-shoes ; cf. also 1. 20 n.

80. Lid-Wicinglim are identified by Chambers with the Lidwiccas mentioned in
A.-S. Chron., anno 885, the British settlers in Armorica, the modern Bretons.

LeonUHL inhabited the modern district of Ostergotland in the E. of
Sweden, probably giving their name to the chief town, Linkoping.

81. HS8$num, the O.N. Hei&nir, who dwelt in Het&mork, between Norway
and Sweden. H3ere]7Um inhabited Hor&aland, on the Hardangerfjord,
called Hereftaland in A.-S. Chron. (Laud MS.), anno 787. Hundingum :
see 1. 23 n.

82. Exsyringlim : Assyrians, according to Mullenhoff.

84. Moidum : Medes (Mullenhoff). Chambers suggests that these Biblical
names may have been corruptions of names of Celtic and Baltic tribes imperfectly
remembered or transcribed. The MS. reading Myrgingum in 11. 84, 85 cannot

NOTES 137

be right in both cases. The text is clearly corrupt ; ongend makes no sense
and mid\Ms> been omitted before the names in 1. 85.

85, 86. Mofdingum, Amothinglim, according to Mttllenhoff, may stand for
the Moabites and Ammonites. Holthausen reads Amoringum, ' Amorites.'

87. *Eolum. Istum dwelt on the shores of the E. Baltic ; they are
apparently the Aestii of Tacitus, who says they spoke a language like that of
Britain, and gathered amber (Germ. xlv. ). They are doubtless the Este men-
tioned in Wulfstan's voyage in King Alfred's Orosius, and are the modern Ests or
Esthonians. Idumingum may be the Ydumaei mentioned by a Latin
chronicler, a small tribe dwelling in what is now called Livonia, on the Gulf of
Riga. But the word may be a corruption of an earlier reading.

88. ealle prage, ' all the time,' may merely mean ' a long time.'

89. me gode dohte, 'availed me with good,' i.e. treated me generously.

92. SCeatta SCillingrime : the exact meaning is not clear, since sceatt has
both a general and a special meaning, either 'money' 'treasure,' or 'piece of
money' 'coin.' The Russian skot, borrowed from Germanic, means 'cattle.'
The scilling was a denomination of value, not a coin ; cf. our ' pound,'
'guinea.' Further, the exact relation of the sceatt to the scilling varied accord-
ing to locality in A.-S. times. We had perhaps better transl. 'six hundred
shillings,' a large sum, equal to half a thane's ivergild ; see Chad wick, Studies
on Anglo-Saxon institutions, chap. i.

95. J?3BS >6, 'because.'

96. A full stop is put after Myrginga on the assumption that Ealhhild is
Ermanric's queen, in whose train Widsith went to the Gothic king's court ;
see 1. 5 n.

103. wit Scilling, ' Scilling and I,' the usual idiom. Scilling was an ordinary
A.-S. personal name.

104. sigedryhtne : Eadwine.

107. Sprecan : North, for spracon.

108. The first half-line is metrically unusual, as in a B-type it is the first full
stress syllable that should alliterate; see Appendix, §§ 3, 8. For song we
suggest songas.

112. *Heftcan. Beadecan : not known, except as the first element of
some A.-S. place-names. Herelingas : the Harlungs of M.H.G. story.
In German Latin chronicles they are called Embrica (Emerca) and Fritla
(Fridla). They were the nephews of Ermanric, who, according to tradition,
had them put to death.

113. Eastgotan : Ostrogotha, the famous king of Germanic legend. The
mention of him here is out of place, as he was an ancestor of Ermanric.

114. *Unwenes.

115. *Secca. Beccan : see 1. 19 n. *Seafolan.

PeodriC : not Theodric the FrankLh king mentioned in 1. 24, but rather, as
Chambers convincingly shows, the earlier Theodric the Ostrogoth, who is men-
tioned in 3 1 8 and in 2 36. This Theodric also was famous in Germanic story.

116. *HeaJ>oric. Sifecan : Sibich, the traitor of M. H. G. legend.

HliJ>6 I by some supposed to be a Longobard king, but more probably
identical with Hloftr of the Hervararsaga. IncgenJ>60W .' not known,

unless he is the Angantyr of the Hervararsaga, the English form of which name,
however, is Ongentheow.

117. Eadwine and JEgelmimd are perhaps Longobard kings. Elsan :
perhaps, as Chambers suggests, a hero of the story of the earlier Theodric

GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

(Dietrich von Bern). Hungar : probably the Gothic chief Hunigaisus,

who acted as interpreter and diplomat for Attila.

118. Wi]?-Myrginga : see 1. 23 n.

119. ^Wulfhere : the name, a common one, occurs in place-names, e.g. in
Wolverhampton. Wyrmhere : probably the Orrnarr of the Her-
vararsaga.

120. Hraeda : a name for the Goths ; see 1. 7 n.

121. The historic fight between the Goths and the Huns is here alluded to.

Wistlawudu I the Goths came originally from the lower Vistula.

122. ^Etlan: seel. 18 n.

123. Raedhere, Rondhere : possibly retainers of Ermanric. Rumstan :

one of the Gothic king's retainers, the Itimstein of M. H.G. legend.
Gislhere : called Gislaharius in the Burgundian laws. The Burgundians were
originally neighbours of the Goths.

124. WiJ>ergield may be the Wiftergyld of 4 E 251. Freo^eric : probably
the Friderich of M.H.G. story, the son of Ermanric. Wudgan : a
Gothic hero, earlier than Ermanric and Theodric, though he came to be asso-
ciated with them in M.H.G. and Icelandic story. In 2 36 he is called Widia.

Haman, the Heime of M. H. G. legend and Heimr of the pidrekssaga,
is mentioned in Beo. as carrying off the Brosinga mene, the famous necklet,
from Ermanric ; see 4 H 422.

126. For anihst Holthausen reads the older dissyllabic form aneist, in order to
restore the metre (the one-stress type) ; see Appendix, § 9.

131. The metre of the first half-line is faulty ; it would be improved by reading
onftmde instead of onfond ; see Appendix, § 9.

133. S6 J>6 him, ' to whom,' an early stage in the development of the relative
pronoun.
135 to end. These lines look like a later ending tacked on to the original poem.

139. gydda : see 4 125 n.

2. WALDERE

MS. Two vellum leaves at the Royal Library in Copenhagen, printed, together
with an emended text, in Grein-Wiilcker i. pp. 7-13. Edition. The

fragment has been edited by F. Holthausen in Die altenglischen Waldere-Bruch-
stiicke, 1899 ; also in Runic and Heroic Poems, by B. Dickins, 1915 ; for other
literature see Brandl, p. 988.

1. The subject of hyrde is doubtless Hiidegy<5 (Hildegund), who begins speak-
ing in 1. 2.

2. Welandes 1 the famous smith and craftsman of Germanic legend, the O.N.
Volundr whose story is told in the Edda and in pidrekssaga ; cf. 3 I. In Beo.

1. 455, a chain-corslet is called Welandes gewcorc. King Alfred also speaks of
ftces wisan goldsmiftes . . . Welondes (Boethius, p. 46 1. 20).

3. Mimming : in Beo. two famous swords have names, Nsegling and Hrunting.
6. jiEtlail : see 1 1 8 n. Walther had been, though a hostage, one of Attila's
captains.

8. A half-line is clearly missing, though there is no gap indicated in the printed
copies of the MS. We may supply dom alicgan, 'your glory fail,' on the
analogy of Beo. \. 1528, his dom alczg.

9. ofter twega, 'either' ; lit. 'one of two things.'

10. lange : adv.

13. fty . . . gesawe, '(reproach thee) with having seen thee.'

NOTES 139

15. OH weal, ' behind the protecting rampart.'

18. ac, 'nay,' 'no, for.'

19. msel ofer mearce: m&l has various meanings. In Genesis 1. 1719
occurs the sentence (5 a 'tiies males ivces mearc agongen, ' the limit of the time had
come.' We may translate, ' thou didst ever push on to fresh fights, seeking
occasion without limit.' metod here has its primitive meaning of
' destiny.'

21, 22. O^res monnes Wigrasdenne is usually taken to mean * combat with
another.' But it may possibly mean 'military service with another,' with
special reference to Walther's service with Attila ; cf. 1. 6, and see 4D 202 n.
21. The MS. reading atstealle occurs nowhere else, unless it is the
same word as atstalle in Guthlac 1. 150, the meaning of which is uncertain.
The sense here required is clearly 'battle.' For aeSCStealle cf. ascstede, 'spear-
place,' 'scene of combat'; see 12 17. It may be noted that there are hardly
any examples in O.E. of a noun with at- as a prefix.

23. ffin : g.s., 'for thee.'

24. ne . . . mece, 'do not trouble about the sword,' i.e. your sword (Mim-
ming) will not fail you.

25. eoce : the dropping of initial g before eo occurs in Kentish texts or texts
copied by Kentish scribes. fty etc., 'therefore (or 'with it') thou
shalt humble Guthhere's boast, for he was the first to,' etc.

28. We are told in Ekkehard's poem that Walther offered Gunther treasure to
cease fighting, but the latter refused. SWUlde : not necessarily Mimming,
the loss of which would have been fatal to Walther.

29. The subject of sceal is Guthhere.

30. hlafurd refers to Guthhere.

33. The first half-line may have been ne gefrcegn ic on monnwn. Guthhere
admits the excellence of Mimming, but he says he has in reserve a still more
famous sword.

39. genam: the subject is either Theodric, 'he took it (out of his hoard),'
or Widia, ' he received it as a reward, for he (Widia), kinsman of Nithhad and
son of Weland, had freed him (Theodric) from bondage ; he (Theodric) then
hastened forth through the region of monsters.' The writer of the poem is
evidently familiar with the Gothic legend of Theodric as a slayer of monsters
which is preserved in the pidrekssaga.

40. Nifthades : cf. 3 5.

41. Welandes : see 1. 2 n.

42. fifela: marine monsters of some kind. The word fifel occurs in fifelstream,
Boeth. Metro,, xxvi. 1. 26, and fijelcynnes eard> Beo. 1. 104 ; cf. also Fifeldore,

143-

44, 45. hildefrofre . . . gripe, 'the grasp of a sword, comforting in battle.'

The use of the pi. guftbilla for the sing, can be paralleled. . It is, however,

possible that gripe may have the concrete sense of ' the part grasped,'

'handle.'

47. Apparently Walther has slain Hagen.

49. heaftuwerigan : sc. me.

52. ealles : adv., 'entirely.'

54 ff. ne . . . dydon, ' it does not play the foe to me when false kinsmen
renew their tricks (eft ongynnaft) and attack me with the sword, as you people
have done.' Onginnan in the sense of 'take in hand,' 'attempt,' usually
takes an object ; hence it is possible that eft may be an error for oht, ' persecu-
tion,' 'hostility.'

140 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

59 ff. The meaning of this passage depends on the word moten in 1. 62. If
we accept the MS. reading mtoten (obviously an error for Jiwten} — and there is
no valid reason for rejecting it — we must take J>onne to mean 'than.' Transl.
' the man who trusts in the Holy One for help, in God for comfort, shall find
ready, if he is thinking of reward, (more) than the wealth which proud ones may
dispense or the possessions they may control.' Before J>onne we must supply
ma, a not unusual omission.
59. Mm is reflex, dat. and need not be transl. ; helpe and gioce are gen. sing.

3. DEOR

MS. in Exeter Book, fol. looa; printed in Grein-Wlilcker, i. pp. 278-9.

Edition by B. Dickins in Runic and Heroic Poems , 1915 ; also

edited with notes in Holthausen's Becnuulf. For literature see Brandl, p. 975,

§ 19-

1. Weland \ see 2 2 n. The MS. reading wurman makes no sense.

Adopting Wiilcker's emendation weamum we transl. ' experienced misery (lit.
exile) to the full.' Wearn is used as equivalent to worn, 'abundance,'
'multitude,' hence 'many'; the dat. plur., with and without to, occurs, with
the same sense ; see B.T. sub voce. It is possible, however, that wurman may
be a proper name ; though in that case we should expect on rather than be.
4. The MS. reading wracc will not scan (E-type) if the <z is long, and if it is
short it is an impossible form ; see Appendix, § 7. Wiace is ace. fern, of ivracu.
5 fF. King Nithhad lamed Weland to prevent him from escaping, but the smith
made himself wings and flew away, having first killed the king's sons and violated
his daughter Beaduhild. Transl. ' after Nithhad had by force laid upon him,
the better man, supple sinew-bonds.' For Niftliad cf. 2 40.

6. There is no need to emend the MS. reading seonobende to seonobenne
' sinew-gash,' though there is strong temptation to do so in order to conform
the A.-S. account to the continental versions of the story. Editors who adopt
the emendation, recognizing that SWOncre does not fit seonobenne, change it
into swongre, but this word is equally unsuitable, as it means ' sluggish,'
'slow,' not 'grievous.'

7. 'That passed away, and so may this.' For this unusual use of the genitive
as subject of a verb cf. 1. 26.

9. byre sylfre ]?ing, ' her own condition,' brought about by Weland ; see
note on 1. 5 ff.

10. gearolice, ' for certain,' with which meaning gearwe or geare is more usual.
12. hu . . . SCeolde, 'how it should be about that,' i.e. how she was to face
the consequences.

14 ff. Some editors, noting the MS. reading mafS hilde, assume that hilde is a
short form of Beadohild, and that these lines are a continuation of the preceding
passage. To support this assumption the common feminine noun mtzft,
'measure,' 'proportion,' is given the meaning 'violence,' 'outrage.' But
the use of the second element of a compound personal name for the whole name
is not proved for early O.E. poetry. Taking Maefthilde (Mathilda) as another
woman's name and with Rieger inserting be, we may transl. ' many of us have
heard this concerning Msethhild, (namely) that the Geat's love (for her) was
boundless, so that his love-pangs robbed him entirely of sleep.'
15. Tupper takes Geates to refer to Nithhad, in which case frige would mean
his love for his sons, slain by Weland ; cf. 1. 8. But it may be noted that

NOTES I 4 I

in the only other passages where frige occurs, Crist 11. 37 and 419, the word is
used expressly of a man's love for a woman.

18. Deodric : the elder Theodric, the Ostrogoth; see 1 115 n., and cf. 2 36.
The allusion here is obscure, but if M<zringa burg was not Theodric's own city,
but held by him as a conqueror, it would be a famous case of misfortune,
comparable to the others in the poem. Possibly instead of ahte we should read
ehte, 'persecuted.'

21. Eormanrices : see 1 8 n.

24. secg monig : i.e. the victims of the Gothic king's tyranny.

28. The subject of siteft has to be supplied, 'a man sits.'

31. J>OHHe, 'however,' a frequent sense.

32. wende]? geneahhe, * makes frequent change. '

36. Heodeninga : the Hjatiningar of Snorri's Edda. Who these people were
is not known.

39. Heorrenda corresponds in form to Horant, the sweet singer of the
M. H.G. poem Kudrim. It is possible that the A.-S. poet is not really speaking
of himself, but is dealing with an imaginary situation and using well-known
historic names, as a modern poet would do.

4. BEOWULF

MS. The only MS. of the poem in existence is in the Cotton collection of
the British Museum, bound up with other MSS. in one codex designated
Vitellius A. XV. The whole text was photographed and the phototypes published
with a transcription and notes on the state of the MS. by J. Zupitza in 1882.
Editions. The most recent annotated editions are those by F.
Holthausen, 1912; Heyne-Schiicking, 1913; W.J. Sedgefield (2nd edition), 1913;
Wyatt-Chambers, 1914; F. Klaeber, 1922. In his Gesch. d. altengl. Lit.,
A. Brandl gives an excellent survey and discussion of .Beowulf questions, with a full
bibliography. Another valuable handbook is Dr. R. W. Chambers's Beowulf, 1921,
in which among other matters the relation of the events described in the poem
to the main body of Germanic and especially Scandinavian story is ably discussed.
Klaeber's edn. (576 pp.) is a veritable encyclopedia of recent Beowulf research.

1. Gar-Dena, ' Spear-Danes. ' The word Dene often occurs in the poem with
a prefix such as Beorht-, East-, Hring-, etc., partly for metrical reasons.
4 ff. ' Often did Scyld Scefing with his bands of warriors take away from
many tribes their dwelling-places ; he struck terror into men, ever since he was
in early years found abandoned. For this he lived to find (gebad) consolation ;
he grew up, prospered in honours, until each one of the surrounding peoples
across the sea (lit. whale-path) was forced to obey him, to pay him tribute.'
Scefing : there has been much controversy over the meaning of this
word. Some take it to mean 'son of Sceaf,' others explain it as 'of the
sheaf.' The former is the more obvious meaning, especially as the name Sceaf
occurs in the patronymic Sceafing at the beginning of the W.S. genealogy given
in two MSS. of A.-S. Chron., anno 855, and the name Sceafa is mentioned in
1 32, as a ruler of the Longobards, however. But the question is complicated
by the fact that the story told of Scyld in Beo. 11. 6-II is related by two English
chroniclers1 of much later times of a personage named Sceaf or Scef, who is
called the father of Sceldius (Scyld). William of Malmesbury further says that

1 Ethel werd (toth cent.) and William of Malmesbury (izth cent.).

142 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

the child Sceaf was discovered by the inhabitants of the island Scandza asleep
with his head resting on a sheaf of corn, whence his name. We cannot decide
whether this story of the sheaf is due to ' popular etymology ' of a hero's name
or whether Sceaf, ' sheaf,' was a name anciently given to a mythological
introducer of agriculture to one or all of the Germanic peoples and adopted by
these peoples as the first name in their royal genealogies. Perhaps Scyld was
a name invented to account for the dynastic name Scylding, and was coupled by
the poet with Scef for the sake of alliteration. SCeaJ»ena: lit. 'harmers,'

'destroyers.' ]?reatum, like other words meaning 'band,' 'army,' etc.,

can be used without the preposition mid.

5. msegjjlim : here the dat. is used as an ablative.

6. eorlas is Sievers's emendation, as egsode requires an object. wearft
is often used instead of was to form a compound past tense ; cf. the similar use
of Germ, ward, wurde.

7. gebad, 'gained by waiting,' i.e. lived to experience; for the function of
ge- see 1 38 n., to which we may add that ge- often converts an intrans. verb
into a trans, one.

8. under WOlcimm is one of several ' otiose ' words and phrases used to fill
up a line ; cf. in geardum 1. 13, and under heofenum 1. 52.

12. ftaem, 'to him.'

13. J>OIie, 'him.' The distinction between the relative and demonstrative use
of sey seo, Jyat is not very marked in early A.-S. poetry.

15. Scyld apparently dies while Beowulf his son is still a child.

16. }><&S, ' for this ' ; cf. 1. 7. liffrea I one of the numerous names
for God in A.-S. poetry. In 17 A, one of the veiy oldest specimens of A.-S.
verse, God is called wuldorf&der, ' Father of glory. ' In Beo. mention is
frequently made incidentally of the power and wisdom of God, but never at any
length ; see 18.

18. Beowulf the Dane, not to be confused with the hero of the poem,
Beowulf the Geat.

19. Scedelandum, now Skane, the most southerly part of Sweden, originally
inhabited by the Danes. In Beo. 1. 1686 the form Scedenigge occurs. The
name is here probably used for the whole of the Danish territory, including the
islands, Hrothgar's dominions.

20-25. Such remarks by the poet on the character and duties of rulers occur
fairly often, but are usually restricted to a line or half-line ; cf.\. 1 1 .

20. gode : here a noun, 'by liberality.' For this common meaning of god
cf. 1 112.

21 . fasder : the older form of the gen. s.

22. }?36t introduces the object of gewyrcean, viz. the noun-clause.
24. gelSBSten with dat. means ' help. '

26. After the digression about Beowulf the poet returns to Scyld. him '.
a kind of reflexive use with verbs of motion, especially with gewitan.

27. feran is complementary infin. to gewat, and need not be transl.

WSere usually means 'covenant,' 'agreement,' see 4 D 160; here it means
'safe-keeping.'

28. hi is explained by SWJfiSe gestyas : gesift properly means 'fellow-traveller'
or ' comrade in an expedition,' from std1. The prefix ge- gives a collective
meaning to nouns, as in geneat, gefera, etc.

30. Wine, ' friend,' often used of a ruler. The affectionate and loyal relations
between the hereditary chief and his people are frequently referred to in A.-S.
poetry,

NOTES 143

31. lange ahte is a repetition of the idea contained in weold.

32. hringedstefna : one of the numerous names of a ship in A.-S. poetry.

33. UtftlS, ' eager to depart ' ; the ship, like the sword, is personified ; fus is
connected vj'\i}\ fitndian, 'to be ready or eager to go.'

35. beaga : beag is any kind of ring-like ornament, such as a crown, armlet,

collar, etc.

38. gegyrwan may be transl. by a passive verb, 'was ever adorned more

handsomely.'

40. him : a common use for his, cf. 1. 49.

41. mid is here an adverbial preposition and follows its case ; it therefore takes
a full stress and alliterates ; see Appendix, § 1 1 d.

43. laessan: d. pi. teodan: the weak verb teon 'adorn,' 'equip'

must not be confused with the strong verb meaning 'draw,' 'pull.'

46. aenne, 'alone.' umborwesende : ace. s. m. The ace. s. m. of

pres. participles in verse is often the same as the nom. s.

50-52. men . . . selersedende . . . haeleft : a case of repetition or the use

of 'equivalents,' a characteristic feature of A.-S. verse ; see Appendix, § 5.

55. feeder: Scyld. ellor hwearf, 'went elsewhither,' i.e. died.

56. him eft onwOC, 'for him afterwards arose,' i.e. he begat.

58. glsede, ' prosperous ' ; for this meaning cf. 1. 225.

59. forft gerimed, 'counted forward,' i.e. in succession.

60. raBSWa refers to Heorogar alone. Kemble emended to the n. pi. raswan.

62, 63. The name of Healfdene's fourth child, a daughter, must have been
included in the passage inadvertently omitted by the copyist. Grundtvig's sug-
gestion Onelan seems fairly certain. Onela was a son of the Swedish king
Ongentheow and brother of Ohthere ; see 4 Gr. The names of the royal Danish
house occur also in the Scandinavian sagas and in the history written in Latin in
the twelfth century by a Danish monk, Saxo Grammaticus, who made use of
current sagas.

63. ScilfingaS is the old Northumbrian gen. s. ; cf. Merewioingas in 4 F 302.
Scilfing or Scylfing, properly the name of the royal Swedish house, was applied
to the Swedish people. The prefix Heafto- is found in several tribal names,
such as Heaftobeardan and Heaftorcemas.

B

65. Grein's emendation of the MS. reading Sigetminde makes better sense, but

the separation of fram from its noun ellendsedum is unusual. Sigemund

and Fitela correspond to Sigmund and Sinfjptli of the Volsungasaga, where we

are told that Vplsung, the father of Sigmund and of Signy his sister, is murdered

by Signy's husband. Sigmund escapes by flight, accompanied by his nephew

Sinfjotli, and meets with many adventures.

67. Wselsinges : Sigemund, son of Wsels (Volsung).

68 ff. ' Such as none of the sons of men knew well . . . save Fitela and

himself, whenever he cared to relate, the uncle to his nephew, some example of

the kind. For they ever were comrades in every desperate deed.'

69. faehfte ond fyrena are an awkward interruption.

70. SWUlces hwset, lit. 'something of such,' i.e. some of Sigemund's
adventures.

71. earn is here a dissyllable, as the metre (E-type) shows ; it corresponds to
the Germ. Oheim.

144 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

73. eotena : eoton, O. N. jotunn, is frequently used in Beo. with the meaning
of 'giant.' The word survived in provincial English till a late period as
' ettin ' ; cf. 18 23, 24 n.

75. unlytel, 'not little,' i.e. great, an example of the figure of speech called
' litotes ' or understatement, common in A. -S. poetry.

76. In the Volsungasaga and the Nibelungenlied it is the Sigemund's son Sigurftr
(or Siegfried) that kills the dragon. wiges heard : Sigemund.

77. hordes hyrde : in ancient folk-lore the dragon's function was to guard
treasure in a cave ; cf. 21 26, 27, draca sceal on hlcewe, frod, frcetwum wlanc.
83. aglssca means properly ' inspirer of terror.' elne, d.s. of ellen,
'valour,' is often used as an adv. meaning 'quite,' 'absolutely'; cf. 1. 137;
here, however, it may have the original sense of ' by his bravery. '

85. Selfes dome, ' at his own discretion,' a common phrase in both prose and
verse.

87. wyrm hat gemealt, 'the dragon melted away in (its own) fire.'

88. wreccena, 'outcasts,' 'exiles.' Among the Germanic peoples every
court must have been familiar with such refugees, banished from their native
land and serving foreign lords. The modern English ' wretch ' shows an
extension of the original meaning.

90. ellendaedum defines mserost. he J>3es aer onftah, ' he on that

account prospered long ago.' Cosijn emended the MS. reading to he Jxzs aron
, 'he on that account prospered with honours,' aron standing for arum.

91, 92. modfayfte . . . Ondrysne : this passage has given rise to much
discussion. Some editors regard mod firyfto, the MS. reading, as standing for
two words, the second being taken as Thryth, the name of the violent princess ;
they transl. ' Thryth displayed anger ' (mod). Others, reading pryfSe and
inserting ne before W3Bg, transl. 'the good queen (i.e. Hygd) did not show the
anger of Thryth.' The MS. reading firyfto is regarded as a personal name
because in a late Latin chronicle, the Lives of the two Offas, the wife of the
second Offa, king of Mercia, is stated to have been a murderous queen named
Drida, which corresponds to the O. E. }>ry(5. But there is nothing to show that
the first Offa, king of the Angles, had a wife of that name. A third way, which
we adopt, is to regard modj?ryfte as an abstract noun ; emending fremu to
freomu we transl. ' an active queen of the people showed a violent temper, a
dreadful sin.' For mod]?ryfte WSBg cf. Genesis 1. 2238, higefiryfte iv<zg, with
much the same meaning.

93 ff. nsenig . . . cyftan, ' not one of the beloved retainers apart from the
great lord (i.e. Offa) was bold enough to meet her gaze (lit. gaze on her with
eyes) eye to eye ; nay, he would have (in that case) regarded as inevitable (lit.
destined for him) bonds twisted by hand. Speedily after the strangling
(mundgripe) was the sword appealed to, so that the figured blade might settle
the matter (hit), make certain (lit. make known) the execution.' The cumbrous
phrasing noticeable in this passage is not infrequent in Beo. and other A.-S.
poems.

94. The prefix sin- means 'great,' 'long,' as in sinniht^ sinhere, sinsnced,
etc. Some editors read sin frea, 'her lord,' but sin, a possess, adj., could
hardly take the stress and alliteration in this position.

101. efnan must be read for efnanne of the MS., as the half-line is of the
A-type

NOTES 145

102, 103. J>3stte . . . mannan explains )>eaw. feores . . .

lliannan, ' should after causeless (lit. ' lying ') anger demand the life of a
dear man ' ; feores is a gen. of definition with an adverbial function, ' in respect
of life.'

104. onhohsnode for onhoscnode, from kusc, 'scorn.' Offa clearly dis-
approved of his wife's behaviour. For the metathesis of c (h] and s cf. httxlic
for husclic, dcsian, ahsian, and dscian, etc.

105. ofter Sasdan, 'said further,' or perhaps it means 'gave another version.'

108. cempan: Offa.

109. seftelum diore, ' brave by descent ' ; the neut. pi. aftelu is occasionally
used with the meaning of 'noble origin,' 'lineage.' diore is the
instr., frequently used for the masc. and neut. dat. sing of adjs.

110. faeder: gen. s. ; cf. l. 21.

112. gode m3Bre, ' famed for her generosity ' ; for this meaning of god see
1 89 and 1. 20.

114. brego: Offa.

116. selestan agrees with bregO : the ' two seas ' are the North Sea and the
Baltic, so that the expression means the countries between these seas, the homes
of the Angles, Danes, etc.

120. J?onon, 'from him.' Thorpe suggested Eomer, as the MS. reading
geomor does not alliterate. Eomser is a name in the genealogy of the Mercian
kings, where he is the grandson of Offa, the Mercian.

121. Hemminges mseg is in apposition to Offa ; cf. 1. 104.

122. ni^a, 'in warlike deeds,' a defining gen. ; cf. feores, \. 102 n.

123. SWeg : either the noise of the banqueting or else the music of the harp ;
cf. hearpan sweg^ Beo. 11. 89, 2458, 3023.

124. Healfdenes hildewisan, ' Halfdane's captain,' i.e. his son Hrothgar, the
Danish king and Beowulf s host.

125. gomenwudu, 'wood of delight,' an example of the poetic equivalents
which play so useful a part in A.-S. verse. The harp is called gleobeam in Beo.
1. 2263, with the same meaning as gomenwudu. gid : Chaucer's
'yeddinges' (C.T. Prol. 1. 236) is a surviving derivative of giedd, which means
a story sung or chanted, or a formal speech; cf. gydda gleawne, 1 139.

wrecen, lit. ' driven out,' 'expelled,' here ' uttered.'

128 ff. Some editors think that the minstrel's story begins with the words
Finnes eaferum, and transl. ' Hnsef, warrior of the Half-Danes, was doomed
to fall by the hand of Finn's sons.' Others assume the loss of a line or lines
after msenan SCOlde and regard eaferum as dependent on some missing word.
Others again insert be before FinH6S and transl. * when Hrothgar's minstrel
began the entertainment (healgamen HUEnan SCOlde) by singing about Finn's
sons,' etc. But the addition of be renders the half-line (A-type) metrically faulty ;
see Appendix, § 7.

129. Healf-Dena is merely a variant of Dena\ cf. 11. 150 and 218 ; they
are called Scyldinga in 11. 168 and 214.

130. FreSWSele, 'slaughter of (i.e. fight with) the Frisians.'

131. ne . . . treowe : an example of the common figure of speech called
'litotes' or understatement; cf.\. 75 n. and 1. 279 n. Hildeburfl :
Finn's queen, daughter of Hoc, king of the Half- Danes, and sister of Hnsef.

L

146 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

132. Eotena : the word eoton, O.I. iotunn, 'giant,' occurs several times in
Beo. and other A.-S. poems ; it is used of the ogre Grendel as well as of the 'giants
of those days.' In the Finn episode it is used of followers of Finn and at first
sight appears to be a synonym for Frisians. Some scholars accept this, regarding
catenas as a nickname (possibly Danish) for Frisians, the ' giants ' or uncouth
monsters. Others see in the word a proper name and assign it to various tribes,
Frisians, Jutes, or Danes. Chambers and others point out that it would be the
Northumbrian form of the W.S. Yte, the Jutes, who inhabited the modern
Jutland and who, according to Bede, emigrated to Kent, the Isle of Wight,
and the opposite coast of Hampshire.

134. on gebyrd : either ' according to their destiny ' or ' one after the other. '
136. Hoces : cf. 1 29.

140. fornam, ' had destroyed ' ; the events preceding the funeral obsequies are
here referred to.

142, 143. ' So that he could not on the battle-field (i.e. Hnsefs hall) by any
means win the fight against Hengest nor overwhelm the remaining band of the
prince's (i.e. Hnsefs) thane ; nay, they (Finn's party) offered them (the Danes)
terms,' etc. The wskforpringan is not found elsewhere ; the dat. ?fegne in
1. 145 seems to be used as a gen.

147. hie : Hengest and his Danes.

148. witJ, 'as compared with.'

149. Folcwaldan SUnu : Finn is called Folcwalding in 1 27.

152. efne SWa SWifte, 'in exactly the same measure.'

153. Fresena cyn : Finn's own people.

155. fta hie . . . frioftuwsere, ' at the time both parties were confident of a
firm peace.'

157. elne unflitme, ' absolutely without dispute,' i.e. quite loyally. For the
adverbial use of elne see 1. 83 n. Unflitme is prob. from flitan, ' to
dispute' (mod. Scottish 'flyte'); cf. 1. 189 n.

158. wealafe : cf. 1. 144.

159. arum, 'with honours,' 'honourably.'

161. gemsenden perhaps means ' defile,' from mane, ' wicked,' a derivative
of man, ' sin ' ; or else ' censure,' cf. 13 57 ; or ' conspire,' from gemizna.

162, 163. fteah hie . . . ge]?earfod W8es, 'though they had, after losing
their prince (Hnsef), taken service with the slayer (Finn) of their ring-giver, since
such need had fallen upon them.'

164- ]?onne, 'however,' 'notwithstanding.'

167. The MS. reading ^Jicge gold may be read as either ond icge or ondicge,
neither of which seems to have any meaning. Golden treasure is brought out of
Finn's hoard and given to Hengest as an earnest of good faith. Some editors
read ad, ' funeral pile,' for a&, and make the gold refer to the ornaments placed
by the warriors' bodies to be consumed with them by the fire.

169. betst beadorinca : Hnsef.

171. SWyn and eofer are the image of a boar crowning the helmets of some.
Germanic tribes.

172. Seeling manig : both Frisians and Danes.

175. The MS. reading sunu is emended by editors to the plur. suna in view of
eaferum, 1. 128, and bearnum, 1. 134.

177. eame On eaxle, 'by the side of their uncle (Hngef).' The MS. reading
earme, if retained, is either ace. pi. agreeing with suna or instrumental (for
dat.) sing., referring to Hnsef, 'by the side of the poor fellow.'

178. giddum, 'dirges.' The MS. reading guftrinc would mean 'warrior,'

NOTES 147

which does not suit the sense of the passage ; gufthring, ' battle-ring,' is a
picturesque name for a smoke spiral ; a final g is frequently written c, cf. aspranc
1. 181.

179. wand, 'curled,' 'circled.'

180. for hlawe, 'before the mound,' i.e. the tumulus or barrow, hollow
inside, in which the ashes of the warriors with their weapons and ornaments were
buried. Great numbers of such mounds have been opened in modern times,
both in Britain and in Scandinavia ; cf. 14 425.

182. laftbite, 'from the wounds,' lit. 'the hostile bite.'

183. gaesta giflOSt, 'greediest of creatures' (lit. 'strangers,' 'visitors'), a
personification of flame. In O.E. MSS. the words gast, 'spirit,' and gcest or
gest (W.S. giest}, 'stranger,' are often confused ; cf. 18 I4n. )>ara
refers to ealle.

184. blaed, 'heyday.'

186. Frysland : see 1 27 n.

188. W3elfagne, 'blood-stained'; wcel means 'corpse,' or generally 'the
slain.' The epithet seems to imply that Hengest helped Finn in his wars during
the winter, though inwardly meditating revenge.

189. elne unflitme is an emendation of the MS. reading finnel unhlitme, on
the analogy of 1. 157 ; transl. ' with strict loyalty.'

192. WOn may stand for either zvann, 'fought,' or wan, 'dark.'

194. geardas, 'dwellings,' i.e. the earth, the world.

194-196. The MS. reading requires emendation. Keeping deft and reading
J?am we transl. ' as it (the year) still does (come) to those who are continually
watching the seasons, (watching for) the brilliant weather (of spring).' Retaining
pa and reading doa<5y Cosijn's suggestion, we transl. ' as do those (years) which
observe the seasons,' etc. ; dodft is an earlier form of doft.

195. Sele : North, for W.S. sale.

200. gif, 'if only.' torngemot, 'meeting of anger,' an expressive
term for 'attack,' 'fight.'

201. As the Eotens are on Finn's side we must insert wift.

202-205. These lines have caused much discussion. The MS. reading
woroldrcedenne occurs nowhere else ; it could only mean ' way of the world,'
but 'did not refuse the way of the world' is hardly intelligible. Moller's
emendation worodr<^denne = werodrcedenne^ 'troop service,' 'military service,'
though not met with elsewhere, gives excellent sense ; cf. uvigradenne, 2 22.
Hunlafing, i.e. 'son of Hunlaf,' seems to have been a young Danish prince
plotting vengeance against the slayers of Hnaef ; the Guthlaf and Oslaf mentioned
in 1. 208 may have been the brothers of Hunlaf and survivors of the fight
in the hall; cf. 5 I5n. By accepting the sword from the son of Hunlaf,
Hengest puts an end to his hesitation and comes into the plot.

205. The sword had shed the blood of Eotens before, and was therefore
peculiarly fitted for the task of vengeance.

206. ferhftfrecan, 'bold champion,' agrees in case with Fin, which is the
obj. of begeat, 'fell upon.'

208. grimne gripe: lit. 'the fierce sword-grip,' i.e. the fatal fight when
Hnsef was killed ; transl. ' when G. and O. after the sea-journey sorrowfully
bewailed that grim fight and taunted them (the Danes) on their woes.' Guthlaf
and Oslaf are egging on the younger Danes to take vengeance on Finn.
210. The subject of meahte must be either mod or Finn understood ; in the
former case we transl. ' their restless purpose could no longer be restrained ' ;
in the latter, ' he could not retain his dazed mind,' i.e. he died. We prefer the

I 48 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

first rendering ; forhabban is used intransitively, as in Beo. 1. 2609, ne mihte
(5a forhabban. weana dsel : see 1. 228 n.

212. feorum, 'lives,' here used for 'life-blood.'
216. SWylce, 'such as,' 'whatever.'
219. leodum, ' her people,' the Danes.

E

220. for dugllfte seems to mean here 'before the company,' but it may mean
'from her noble breeding.'

221. eorlum on ende, ' to the far end of the rows of warriors.'

225. gladum, 'radiant,' 'prosperous'; cf. 1. 58. suna Frodan :

Ingeld, mentioned in 1 48.

226. £ses geworden, ' agreed to, arranged this.' wine Scyldinga :

i.e. Hrothgar, their king.

227. J?set rsed talaft, 'holds it good policy,' cf. 22 120.

228. This use of dsel with another noun in the gen. pi. is fairly common in Beo.
and other O.E. verse. It is merely a periphrasis for the pi., and serves to fill
out a half-line. Cf. weana d<zl, 4 210.

229. The MS. reading gives no clear sense ; some editors insert no before seldan
and, putting no stop after leodhryre, transl. ' Often, not seldom (is it the
case) where the murderous spear after the fall of a chief rests a little while.'
But this puts a strain on the meaning of the O.E. words, as lytle does not mean
'a little' but 'only a little,' 'not for long.' The emendation in the text
means ' often has fortune changed after the fall of a chief ; only a little while
does the spear rest' ; selft is the Northumbrian form of the W.S. scelS.

231. duge, ' be a good one.'

232. As the construction oioffryncan, 'mislike,' is dat. of person and gen. of
thing (]?ses) the MS. reading fteoden needs to be emended to fteodne.
fteodne Heaftobeardna (Ingeld) : for the Heathobards see 1 49 n.

234 ff. 'When he (Ingeld) goes into his hall with the lady (Freawaru), attended
by a company (of Danish retainers). On them glisten the heirlooms of the old
ones' (Heathobards), etc. Some editors retain the MS. reading dugufta but
change biwenede to bi werede and transl. ' when he, some Danish noble in the
troop of retainers, comes into the hall with the lady, on him glisten,' etc.
According to this view the fsemnan J>egn mentioned in 1. 259 is here
introduced.

238. hie : the dead Heathobard chiefs.

239. ' Until they lost in the fight their dear retainers and their own lives.'
fbrlaeddan means ' led away to their doom. '

241. Cwift, 'shall say.' beom is either a Danish warrior of Freawaru's

suite, or the young Heathobard mentioned in 1. 244.

245. ' To test his resolution by working on his feelings ' is the sense of this line.
248. frod is a certain emendation, as the metre is otherwise defective.

251. Wiftergyld : this name occurs in 1 124.

252. Scyldungas merely repeats Dene of l. 250.

253. ]?ara . . . nathwylces, 'the son of one or other of the murderers.'
255. morftres gylpeft, ' parades the crime ' (of his father).

259. >egn : the Dane. fore=y^r, 'on account of.' fseder,

the earlier form of the gen. s. usual in Beo.

261. ealdres scyldig, 'obliged to forfeit his life.' se ofter: the

NOTES

149

young Heathobard warrior. him is reflex, dat. with the verb of motion

losaft ; cf. the same use with gewitan.

263. bio$, ' shall be.'

264. aflsweord : it would seem that swords were either exchanged as
pledges or used to swear oaths upon in the concluding of a solemn treaty, and
were broken as a sign that the treaty was ended ; see 9, Introd. Note, and 1. 65,
n. ib.

267. }>y, 'therefore,' 'for these reasons'; transl. 'therefore I do not con-
sider the loyalty of the Heathobards and their alliance devoid of treachery to
the Danes, nor their friendship enduring.' Beowulf is speaking to Hygelac.

271. Hygelac : son of Hrethel, king of the Geats and uncle of Beowulf. The
Geats were neighbours of the Swedes in the south of what is now Sweden, the
Geats living south of the great lakes and the Swedes to the north.

273. Freslondum : the reference is apparently to the West Frisian allies of the
Hetware ; cf. 1. 285.

274. hiorodryncum SWealt, 'perished by sword-gulps,' a very bold
metaphor.

275. ]?onan : from Friesland.

276. SUndnytte dreah, ' swam,' lit. ' discharged the function of swimming. '
Such expressions, strange to us, were merely part of the A.-S. and O.Icel. poet's
verbal stock-in-trade, his wordhord.

277. him, as often, means 'his.' ana, the weak form of an, means
' alone. '

279. Hetware: probably the H<ztwcre of 1 330. nealles . . .

feftewigCS, ' the H. had no cause to rejoice in their prowess,' an example of
the significant under-statement so much employed by A.-S. poets, cf. 1. i3On.
The infin. beon is omitted with porfton, as it frequently is with mag, sceal, etc.

281. lyt, ' few of them ' ; see 1. 229 n.

282. hildfrecan : Beowulf; cf. 1. 206. niosan is complementary to

becwom.

283 ff. Beowulf himself here recalls his share in Hygelac's disastrous expedition,

alluded to in the previous lines. for dllgeftum : cf. 4 £ 220 : ' before

the armies I was the slayer of Daeghrem ' (who killed Hygelac). Huga :

a name given to the Franks.

285. frSBtwe : belonging to Hygelac. FreSCyninge is either a

Frisian king under the overlordship of Theodoric, or else Theodoric himself, or

his son Theodobert. We are here reminded of the doubt as to the identity of

the Eotenas in the Finn episode. It must be remembered that the Franks

living near the mouth of the Rhine as far as the Zuyder Zee had Frisians as

their nearest neighbours.

287. Climbles hyrde, ' the guardian of the standard,' Dseghrefn.

289. BeowulPs terrible hand-grip rendered the use of a sword unnecessary, as is

shown in his fight with Grendel.

289, 290. heortan . . . gebrSSC, 'crushed his heart's founts, his bone-house,'

a fine example of A.-S. poetic imagery.

291. Beowulf, after succeeding Heardred, Hygelac's son, as king of the Geats,

and reigning many years, now lies dead after slaying the dragon. The

messenger who reports his death to his people recalls past feuds and prophesies

fresh ones.

150 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

292. undeme, 'not secret,' 'publicly known,' is the predicate of
in 1. 294.

293. cyninges : Beowulf.

295. Hugas : see 1. 284 n.

296. fl.oth.erge : for this use of the dat. without mid cf. 4 4 n.

297. The MS. reading gehncegdon, ' brought low,' is metrically faulty, as it brings
two alliterations into the second half-line.

298. geeodon . . . )>Set, 'brought it to pass . . . that.'

299. byrnwiga : Hygelac.

301. dugofte, 'to his followers.' A distribution of treasure would have
followed victory. US, 'to us Geats.'

302. MerewioingaS, ' of the Merovingian,' i.e. Theodric, one of the
Merovingian dynasty of Frankish kings. For the Northumbrian gen. s. ending
as cf. Scilfingas, 1. 63 n.

304. wid WSBter : the great lakes Wener and Wetter, in the south of Sweden.

305. Hrethel had three sons, Herebeald, Haethcen and Hygelac. Herebeald
was accidentally killed by Hsethcen ; see 11 0, Introd. Note. On Hsethcen's
death at the hands of the Swedish king Ongentheow, Hygelac succeeded to the
Geatish throne.

306. The words o<5<5e him, which in the MS. immediately precede Ongenfteowes,
cannot form part of the same half-line, which is of the simple A- type ; see
Appendix, §§ 7, 8. We must therefore assume either that they were inserted in
error by the copyist, or that they are part of one or more lines that have been
omitted. Ongenfteowes eaferan : Onela and Ohthere; for Ongentheow
cf. 1 31.

308. heafo, 'seas,' is the Mercian form of W.S. hafu, pi. of haf. The
reference is to the great lakes Wener and Wetter and numberless smaller ones
which lay between the Swedes and the Geats. Hreosna-Beorh is a
name not occurring elsewhere. Some editors emend to Hrefna-Beorh in view
of Hrefnesholt) 1. 334, but there seem to have been two battles at different
places.

309. * They often made fierce and perfidious attacks.'

310. msegwine mine, ' my kinsmen' (uncles), i.e. Haethcen and Hygelac.

312. ofter, 'one of the two,' i.e. Haethcen.

313. Hsethcen was slain by Ongentheow, as we are told in 11. 323, 324.
heardan ceape, 'a cruel bargain.'

315. ' Then, I have heard, in the morning one brother (Hygelac) avenged the
other (Hsethcen) on the slayer.'

317. EoforeS : a Geatish warrior ; cf. 1. 363.

318. Scylfing: Ongentheow.

319. hond : apparently the hand of Eofor, who slays the old king when the
latter attacks him : * his hand remembered the many (genoge) rights ; it did
not withhold the mortal stroke.'

321. to, 'from.'

322. wihte, 'at all.' ac, 'for,' or 'nay, rather,' the usual meaning
when a negative sentence precedes.

326. leode is obj. of gesohton.

327. fseder Ohtheres : Ongentheow.

328. ondslyht ageaf, 'returned to the attack.'

NOTES I 5 I

329. brimwisan, ' the sea-chief,' i.e. Hcethcen, who had apparently carried

off Ongentheow's wife (bryd). In 1. 353 the Geats are called scemannnm.

afeorde, 'removed,' 'took away.' Some editors read ahredde,
'rescued.'

332. feorhgeniftlan : Hsethcen's Geatish followers. 335. sinherge, ' with

a large force ' ; for this meaning of the dat. see 1. 4 n. ; for the prefix sin-
see 1. 94 n. SWGOrda lafe, ' what was left by the swords,' i.e. the

remnant of Hoethcen's followers ; cf. ^vealafe, 1. 144.

338. After cwaeft the conj. pcet is occasionally omitted in Beo.

339. getan, 'destroy,' properly 'to pour out,' the Anglian form of the W.S.
gietan, a causal derivative of geotan, 'gush out,' 'pour'; cf. the similar
Latin use vifiindere.

341. sarigmodlim : Hsethcen's band.

342. hie : also H.'s band.

344. dugofte, 'with the flower'; cf. sinherge^ 1. 335. on last, 'on

the track (of Ongentheow). '

347. mid him, 'among themselves.'

348. S6 goda here refers to Ongentheow, now fleeing from Hygelac.

350. This line, which is a parenthesis, is not quite clear ; we may transl.
'the warrior (Hygelac) had turned Ongentbeow back higher up (the hill).'

351. The subj. of hsefde is Ongentheow.

353. )>3Bt introduces a noun-clause expanding the meaning of Wlftres.

354. hord forstandan : the treasure, including booty and other fruits of
victory, was defended to the last.

355. beam is probably pi. beah, 'he retreated.'

356. eorftweall : a stronghold surrounded by an embankment. ]?a
W36S seht boden, etc. : the meaning of this passage is not clear ; we may
transl. ' treasure was offered, a banner, to Hygelac by the Swedish people ;
they came out on the plain. Then Hrethel's men (the Geats) pressed forward
to the fort. There Ongentheow the grey-haired was driven to bay by the edge
of swords, so that he, the people's king, had to yield to the will of one man,
Eofor.' Some editors read oht, 'pursuit,' for geht, and Higelaces^ and translate
'then was pursuit offered to the Swedes (i.e. the Geats attacked them); the
banners of Hygelac advanced over the plain to the fort.'

363. hyne, etc., 'him (Ongentheow) Wulf, son of Wanraed, had (previously)
attacked fiercely with his weapon.'
365. him, ' from him ' (Ongentheow).

368. wyrsan wrixle, ' with a worse exchange,' worse, that is, for Wulf.

369. )>yder oncirde, ' returned to the charge. '

370. sunu Wonredes : Wulf.

371. giofan : a Mercian or Kentish form for W.S. giefan.

372. he : Ongentheow.

373. he : Wulf. bugan, 'give way.'

374. faege is regularly used of men whose death is at hand.

375. hyne gewyrpte, '(afterwards) recovered.'

376. J?egn : Eofor. The complementary infin. to let is brecan, ' caused his
broad blade, old and once a giant's, to split the ancient helm over the shield-
defence.' Swords were valued for their age and history; eotonisc and
entiscne denote a supernatural degree of excellence. Entas were the
mighty men of former days, giants or demi-gods ; eoton was a supernatural
monster ; cf. 1. 73 n.

377. his broftor : i.e. Wulf.

I 5 2 GERMANIC LEGEND AND STORY

381. his m&g : Eofor's brother, Wulf.

382. fta him gerymed wearft, etc., 'when they had been enabled to win the
victory ' (lit. ' control the slaughter-place ').

384. ' Meanwhile the warrior (Eofor) stripped the other (Ongentheow).'

388. he : Hygelac, Eofor's lord. feng here takes the dat.

389. leana is partitive gen., 'some rewards.'

390. geald, 'paid for,' 'rewarded.' dryhten ! Hygelac.

391. ham with to and cet does not take the dat. inflexion.

393. hund ]?USenda, 'the value of 100,000 (i.e. sceattas, see 1 92 n.) in land
and linked rings.'

394. ne Sorfte, etc. , ' no man on earth need grudge them that reward, after
they had won such glory.' Or, if him refers to Hygelac, we may transl. 'no
man need reproach him ' (i.e. for giving too small a reward).

397. hyldo to wedde, ' as a pledge of favour ' ; hyldo belongs to a class of
indeclinable fern, abstract nouns.

398. hyne : Heardred.

399. SUna Ohteres : Eanmund and Eadgils. Eanmund is mentioned in Beo.
1. 261 1 as a son of Ohthere.

400. helm Scylfinga : Onela.

402. Swiorice : see 1 31 n.

403. him . . . Wearft, 'for him (Heardred) that was the limit (of life).'

404. for feorme, 'in return for his support (of Ohthere's son).'

405. SUI1U Hygelaces is in apposition with he.

406. Ongenftioes beam : Onela.

408. The subj. of let, ' arranged,' is Heardred. We are told in another part of
the poem that Hygelac's widow wished Beowulf to succeed to the throne, as her
son Heardred was too young, but Beowulf preferred to act as regent, watching
over the prince till he came of age. Now that Heardred is dead, Beowulf
succeeds him ; cf. Beo. 11. 2369 ff.

410. S6 : Beowulf ; ' he remembered the payment due for the death of his
chief ; i.e. resolved to take vengeance on Onela.

412. folce gestepte, 'helped (lit. exalted) with an army.'

413. sunu Ohteres : Eadgils.

414. he: Eadgils.

415. cyning: Onela.

H

416. him : Beowulf, to whom a collar is given by Wealhtheow, queen of
Hrothgar, the Danish king, as a reward for his having slain the monsters,
Grendel and his mother. ful, 'cup.'

422. Hama is the Heime of Germanic story, the companion of Wittich (O.E.
Wudga) ; see 1 13011.

425. Eormenrices : see 1 8 n. geceas . . . rsed, ' chose the

eternal way,' a euphemism for 'died.'

430. ahsode, 'experienced.'

431. to, 'from,' 'at the hands of.'

433. Hygelac was slain in the fight with the Franks and Frisians ; see 4 F,
Introd. Note.

5. THE FIGHT AT FINNSBURH

MS. The MS. of this fragment has been lost, so that we are dependent on the
text printed by G. Hickes in his Linguarum Veterum Septentrionalium
Thesaurtis, Oxford, 1705. The fragment is edited with notes in the

NOTES I 5 3

editions of Beo. by Holthausen, Klaeber and Wyatt-Chambers ; also by B.
Dickins, I.e.

1 ff. Apparently one of Hnaefs men on the watch has noticed a light approaching
the hall and reports it to Hnaef (cyning), who at once perceives that the moon-
light is reflected from the armour and weapons of an approaching enemy. He
thereupon rouses his sleeping men and sends them to their stations.

3. draca : dragons were supposed to breathe out fire ; see 14 E.

4. hornas : the gables ending in horn-like points.

5. 6. There is no break between beraft and fugelas in Hickes's text, but
clearly two half-lines at least have been omitted ; we may transl. ' but in this
case foemen are on the march.'

6ff. fugelas . . . OllCWyft, 'the birds (of battle) are croaking, the grey-
coated (wolf) is howling, spears are rattling, shields answer them.' The eagle,
the raven, and the wolf are the conventional attendants on battles in O.E.
poetry; cf. Beo. 1. 3024 ff., se wonna hrefn . . . (sceal) earne secgan hu him
<zt ate speoW) Jyenden he -wid1 wulfe w<zl reafode.

10. As it stands this line can be transl. ' which will bring to a head this
hatred of the people,' but the sense is rather strained. By emending ftisne to
(Sisses and willaft to willeft we obtain a better meaning, ' which this people's
(the enemy's) malice is about to cause.'

12. hebbaft eowre handa, 'raise your hands,' i.e. take a solemn vow to
fight to the death.

12, 13. hicgeaj? . . . mode, ' fix your purpose on deeds of valour, hurl (your
spears) in the van of battle, be of good heart.'

16. Sigeferft I see 1 3 1 n. Eaha : not elsewhere met with.

17. Ordlaf and Guthlaf are probably the Oslaf and Guthlaf who in the Beowulf
Finn episode appeal to Hengest for vengeance ; see 4 D 208.

18. hwearf him on laste, ' followed them ' ; lit. < moved in their tracks.'

19. Garulf apparently is the leader of the attacking party.

20 ff- ' That he should not bear his noble life nor his armour to the doors of
the hall, since a warrior bold in attack wished to take it ' (i.e. his life).

22. ni)>a heard probably refers to Sigeferth.

23. he : Garulf.

25. Secgena : apparently the same people as the Sycgum of 1 31.

26. wreccea wide cuft : cf. 4 B 88.

27. fte . . . Wylle, 'for thee is destined whatever thou thyself desirest to
ask from me,' i.e. life or death. SW3B]?er is a contraction of swa
hw&fter, ' whichsoever of two. '

30. celled is Grein's emendation on the analogy of celled bord in 16 283, q.v. ;
its meaning is not known.

31. banhelm may mean ' corslet ' or ' helmet ' ; it occurs nowhere else.

35. Hickes's reading hivearflacra is clearly an error. Grundtvig's emendation
hwearflicra is metrically weak for an E-type of half-line if judged by the
Beowulf standard, but might be admitted in view of the slackness observable in
the versification of this poem; cf. 21 219 n., and Appendix, § 7. The adj. hwerflic
occurs in Boeth. p. 25 1. 10, with the meaning 'changing'; the adv. hwearjlice
occurs once in a gloss with the meaning ' by turns,' so hwearflicra may mean
* who fell in turn.'

36. stod, ' flashed out,' a common meaning.

37. The reading Finnsbttruh given by Hickes needs emendation, as Finns for
Finnes is inadmissible ; buruh is a late form of burk, which is a monosyllable.

Finnes burh seems here to be a walled town or castle belonging to

154 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING

Finn, outside his own kingdom. Hnoef s hall, which is being attacked, is in the
town or within the castle precincts.

39. sel repeats the idea contained in wurj>licor.

40. This is another corruption in Hickes's text. Grein's emendation of swanas
for the meaningless swa noc, if correct, would mark the poem as very late, as the
meaning ' man-at-arms ' for swan was borrowed from the Danish sveinn. In
O.E. swan means 'swineherd,' as in A.-S. Chron., anno 755, and elsewhere.
By the omission of swa noc, probably due to careless proof-correction by Hickes,
and reading swetne for hwitne with Ettmiiller, we obtain a metrically correct
B-type half-line with perfect meaning, 'nor ever better paid for sweet mead.'
Thanes were in honour bound to requite their lord's generosity by devotion on
the field of battle.

42. hig : the ig here, as often, denotes a long i. SWa . . . feol,

' without one of them falling. ' The metre here is faulty, as the first stressed

syllable of the second half-line should alliterate ; see Appendix, § 3.

44. wseg : for weg.

47. folces hyrde probably refers to Finn.

II. ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING

6. THE WANDERER

MS. in Exeter Book, fol. 76b. Text in Grein-Wiilcker, i. p. 284 ff.

Ed. and transl. by Miss N. Kershaw in A.-S. and Norse Poems, 1922.

5. wyrd . . . arsed, 'fate in full is determined ' ; araed is for arceded, p.p. of

arczdan ; ful is prob. an adj. here.

10. )>e . . . him, ' to whom,' an early form of the rel. pron. ; cf. 1 133 n.

14. healde his hoidcofan, 'guard his treasure-chest,' i.e. keep his thoughts

to himself.

16. helpe gefremman, ' provide help,' i.e. find consolation.

17. domgeorne, lit. 'desirous of fame,' may here mean 'noble-minded,'

'proud.' dreorigne, 'sad,' agrees with hyge.

19. modsefan is the obj. of saelan in 1. 21.

25. dreorig qualifies ic understood.

27. The MS. reading mine, if correct, can only stand for myne, ' mind,'
' purpose.' But the metre would then be faulty, as mine takes a strong
'resolved' stress. Consequently emendation is needed. Wyatt's suggestion,
minne, ace. s.m. of min, is the best ; we should then transl. ' one who had
known my (lord) in the meadhall.' Keeping mline we might emend wisse to
wissie and transl. 'one who might guide my purpose.'

29. wat . . . CUnnaft, 'he (alone) knows who makes trial,' i.e. has experience.

30. to geferan, 'as a companion.'

32. waraft usually means 'guard,' 'be in custody or possession of; here
we may transl. 'possesses him,' i.e. fills his thoughts.

36. wenede to Wiste, 'treated with abundance,' 'spoiled' ; cf. \. 29.

37. Wat is used absolutely, 'understands,' 'has true knowledge.'
42, 43. on cneo . . . heafod describes the act of homage.

44. The MS. reading giefstolas may be the Northumbrian form of the gen. s.,
the case required with breac.

50 ff. In punctuating and translating this difficult passage it must be remembered
that the wanderer is now thought of as rowing or sailing on the sea. SOIg

NOTES I 5 5

* •*

. . . sefan, 'his sorrow is renewed when the memory of his kinsmen
passes through his mind, he greets with song and eagerly scans the companions
of warriors (i.e. the occupants of other vessels), but they sail away again
(unresponsive, for) the mind of seafarers does not recall many of the familiar
songs ; grief is renewed for him who time after time (swil?e geneahhe) has to
send his weary thoughts across the expanse of waters (i.e. keep a look-out ahead
of the vessel).' Most editors think that this passage describes a dream or vision
in which the wanderer joyfully greets the friends of the past and scans their
faces, whereupon the visionary forms disappear (swimmaft on WGg).
62. It is possible that the original poem ended with magll]?egnas, as the
remaining portion is of the conventional moralizing kind that is found in other
A.-S. poems, such as 12, 13, the Ruin, etc.

65. wintra doel, 'a good number of years.' With SCGal we must supply beon.
70 ff- 'A man should wait, when he makes (or intends to make) a promise (or
boast), until he, confident in spirit, knows exactly whither his purpose will tend.'
73 ff. Reflections on the fleeting character of this world suggested by the sight
of ruined buildings form the burthen of the A.-S. poem called the Ruin.

79. dreame : the original meaning of dream is 'noise of singing, revelry,' etc.,
as in Beo. 1. 88, he . . . dream gehyrde hhidne in healle. By an extension of
meaning it came to be used for 'joy.'

80. bi wealle : these words are probably inserted to complete the metre rather
than to indicate the place where the warriors fell.

81. ferede in forftwege, 'bore them on their way forward,' i.e. caused their
death. fugel : a bird such as the eagle or raven, which carries off pieces
of carrion from the field of battle ; see 5 6 and 35.

83. deafte gedselde, 'assigned to death.'

85. Selda : the Anglian form of W.S. ielda.

86, 87- ' Until the ancient works of giants stood idle, lacking the noise of
townsmen ' ; burgwara is g. pi. depending on breahtma ; geweorc must be
taken as a plur. enta : old buildings, also treasure, weapons, and
armour found in grave mounds, etc., were regarded as the handiwork of the
giants of old ; cf. Beo. 1. 1679, where a sword is called enta geweorc, and 1. 2717,
where the arched entrance to a burial-mound receives the same appellation ; cf.
also 1. 2774, where the treasure-hoard is ascribed to the same source.

90. feor, ' far back in time,' a common meaning ; feorran is also used ;
cf. 18 A 3-

92 ff. The thoughtful man stands by a ruined hall and soliloquizes as he pictures
to himself the life that filled the hall in earlier days.

96. genap, 'has faded into mist.' The noun genip means 'mist,' ' cloud';
cf. 1. 104.

97. on laste . . . dugll]?e, 'in the place once occupied by the friendly
company' ; last properly means 'footprint,' 'track.'

98. fab. properly means ' adorned with a design, pattern or marking. ' The
' wall ' is here probably the interior wall of the hall. With wyrmlicum
cf. wyrmfah) 14 602.

100. msere here means ' notorious.'

104. nipeft, ' comes glooming up.'

105. hselejjum on andan, ' to the vexation of men.'
111. gesaet . . . nine, 'sat apart in meditation.'

112 ff. Such long lines occur fairly often in A.-S. poetry. It is generally
thought that they are used in exalted or solemn passages, but this is not always

the case. torn is obj. of acyj?an.

\
156 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING

113. bote : obj. of gefremman.

114. eorl is in apposition with he. mid elne, ' effectually.'

115. to, ' from,' a common meaning with verbs of asking, expecting or
believing.

7. THE SEAFARER

MS. in Exeter Book, fol. 8ib. Text in Grein-Wiilcker, i. p. 290 ff.

Ed. and transl. by Miss N. Kershaw ; see 6.

6. atol . . . gewealc \ y<5a gewealc occurs in Beo. 1. 464, and atol yfta geswing
in 1. 848.

8. lie : sc. naca.

9. The MS. reading ivaron minefet is metrically faulty, as in the B and C types
of half-line it is the first strong stress that alliterates. The original text may
have had foete, the earlier form of fet, in which case the half-line would have
been of the type with one strong stress ; see Appendix, § 9.

13. 'To whom fortune is fairest on land,' i.e. who is fortunate enough to live
on land.

15. WTSBCCan lastuin, 'in the tracks of an exile,' i.e. far away from home.

16. A half-line has dropped out here, though there is no sign of a lacuna
in the MS.

20 ff. 'I made the cry of the gannet my delight, and the scream of the gull I
put before the laughter of men, the chanting seamew before the drinking
of mead.'

24. ]?aet : sc. dif.

25. The epithet urigfe)>ra, 'wet-feathered,' is applied to the eagle in Judith
1. 210, and Elene 1. 29. Two half -lines seem to have fallen out here.

26. ferhft seems here to have the meaning of 'soul,' 'person' ; transl. 'not
one of the kinsmen, not a single poor soul, was (or, would have been) able to sail
(in such weather).'

27 ff. ' Therefore he who, proud and luxurious, possesses the good things of life,
who (living) in towns (has) experienced but few dangerous journeys, will hardly
believe how,' etc. The seafarer has a grievance against the fortunate, unsym-
pathetic landsman. 27. him can hardly be transl. here.
31. nap nihtscua : cf. 6 104. The past tenses in this line and the next denote
recurring action in the past : ' the squall (lit. night-shadow) would loom up, it
would snow from the north,' etc.

33. for J>on . . . CUnnige, ' so too now my thoughts are battering at my
heart, (impelling) me to face in person the deep waters, the heaving of the
salt waves.'

34. hean is ace. pi. weak, with the def. art. omitted, as is usual in early verse ;
cf. ecan, 1. 79.

36. Such ' psychological ' words as mod, heorte, sefa, feorhft, hre&er, gehygd,
etc., are used vaguely in A.-S. poetry, being practically interchangeable.

37. In the earlier verse to is often used with the uninflected infin.

39 ff. A man may be ever so brave and favoured by fortune, yet he cannot face

a sea- voyage without anxiety. 39. J>8BS, ' so ' ; to J>38S has the same sense.

41. dryhten here, as in 1. 43, probably means ' earthly lord,' ' chief.'

43. ' As to what commission his lord will charge him with.'

46. ne . . . nefne, ' nor will he think of aught else save.'

48. nimaft : here intrans., 'take on,' 'increase.' Miss Kershaw suggests

blostmittft.

NOTES I 5 7

51. ]?am . . . J>enceft, 'of him who is thinking of.'

52. We may read either flodivcgas, 'sea- waves,' oijlodwegas, 'sea-paths.'

53. The cuckoo is also mentioned in 9 40 as the harbinger of summer.

54. beodetf, 'utters,' 'proclaims.'

55. breOSthord : the sense requires the dat. breosthorde, but this would
be metrically incorrect. But perhaps the sentence means that the bitterly com-
plaining cuckoo fills the mind of the hearer with sadness.

57. 'lay down the footsteps of exile,' i.e. wander, travel.

58. min . . . hre)?erlocan, ' my thoughts pass over the confines of my
breast,' i.e. go roaming.

61 ff. The seafarer likens his spirit (modsefa) to a sea-bird.

63, 64. hweteft . . . gelagU, * urges my thoughts on irresistibly to the whale-
path, over the expanse of waters.'

64. The seafaring part of the poem ends with gelagll ; the rest is commonplace
moralizing, like the latter part of the Wanderer. hatran, ' more
warming,' 'more inspiring.'

68 ff. * Ever for each creature, before its time passes away, one of three things

brings a risk (lit. becomes a doubt) : either sickness or old age or else armed

hate may wrest the life from a man, if he is doomed and about to go. Therefore

for each man the best memorial he can win before passing away is the praise of

survivors (lit. after-speakers), of the living ; let him by bold deeds against the

malice of foes, against the devil, bring it to pass (fremman) that the sons of men

may afterwards praise him, and his fame live,' etc.

69. For the MS. reading tidege Grein suggested tiddege = tiddcege 'date' (of

occurrence).

73. lastworda : lit. ' words that remain ' ; cf. the phrase last weardian,

' remain in one's footsteps,' 'remain behind.'

75. The obj. of fremman is the clause introduced by J>set in 1. 77- For

fremman Sweet reads fremme, to correspond with gewyrce.

77. selda : see 6 85 n.

79. awa to ealdre, 'for evermore,' lit. 'ever for life.'

80. dugeJHim., 'the (heavenly) hosts,' a common meaning in religious poetry.

84. mid him, ' among themselves.'

85. dome, 'glory'; dom originally meant 'something laid down,' hence
'judgement,' 'opinion,' then 'good opinion,' 'fame,' 'glory.'

86. duguft, 'noble company.'

88. brucaft J?urh bisgO, 'possess it anxiously.'
91. On takes a full stress here ; see Appendix, § 1 1 (d).
93. Cf. 6 22, 23.

97 to end. ' Though a man may strew with gold the tomb of his own brother,
(and so) with various treasures bribe the dead man (to excuse him) from
accompanying him, yet no gold, when he buries it in his lifetime here, avails to
ease the conscience (sawle) of the sinful man from his fear of God.' If the MS.
reading byrgan be retained, the sense will require )>36t to be emended to peak ;
the comma after geboremim will have to be omitted, a comma put after
deadum, and a semicolon after wille ; we should then transl. ' though he
desire to strew the tomb with gold, with various treasures, to bury one brother
by another dead brother, yet he will not go with them (i.e. enter the tomb).'
The change of byrgan to bycgan gives much better sense.

158 ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING

8. A WOMAN'S COMPLAINT

MS. in Exeter Book, fol. H5a. Text in Grein-Wiilcker, i. p. 302.

Ed. and transl. by Miss N. Kershaw ; see 6.
1. This line is similar to the first line of 7-

4. niwes and ealdes are, like yrm]>a, partitive gen. depending on hwaet.

HO ... HU, ' no more (misery) than (I am suffering) now.'

5. The MS. reading wonn, ' struggled,' gives no sense unless we supply wip
before wite. We might read gewonn, 'obtained,' or else fond, 'found,3 'ex-
perienced.'

8. hwser londes, ' where in the world,' or ' in what land.'

9. 'Then I went away, seeking service in my sad need, a friendless exile.'

me is dat. reflex., the usual construction vii\hgewitan. folgaft

is homfolgian, 'to follow,' 'be in the service of ' ; cf. 3 38.
13, 14. ]?3et . . . longade, ' so that we might live (or, have been living) far,
far apart in the world — most hateful (fate) — and I might suffer (or, have been
suffering) longing.' lifdon may be either indie, or subjunct.

15. ' My lord bade me take up here a hard lot ' ; Grein reads eardy ' dwelling,'
for heard ; her does not usually take a full stress, but may do so here for
emphasis.

21. The order of the half-lines has perhaps been inverted by the copyist :
'many a time, with cries of joy, we vowed that nothing save death alone should
part us.'

22. The subject of gedselde is owiht.

26. felaleofan is probably objective gen. ; transl. ' I must bear (the conse-
quences of) the enmity displayed against my very dear one.'

27. Apparently the woman has been ordered to pass the daytime in a deserted
cave or ruined hut at the foot of an oak in some gloomy mountain valley.

31. bitre here perhaps means 'repellent,' ' thorny.'

32. fill oft . . . frean, ' oft has my lord's departure fallen grievously upon
me,' i.e. hit me hard, caused me suffering.

33. ' My dear friends are living in the earth (i.e. are dead), they are dwelling
in the tomb.'

42. The first half-line is apparently a one-stress type ending x \ , which is very

rare ; see Appendix, § 9.

42 ff. Taking these lines to refer to the enemy of the woman's husband, we

transl. ' may the young man, who (by nature) should have a happy bearing, be

sad — his heart's thought is stern — likewise (eac ]>on) let him have cares, a

multitude of sorrows ; let his happiness depend upon himself (i.e. may he feel

remorse for his action), may he be an outcast (lit. enemy) in a far country,

because my friend is sitting under a cliff, frozen with the storm-wind, my weary

love, with water all around him, in a dreary cave.'

47. We might instead of J>SBt read freer or ' hvucet (interj.).

52. wa . . . abidan, 'alas for her who in longing must wait for her dear one.'

The masculine demonstr. pron. is occasionally used in reference to a fern, noun,

cf. Beo. 11. 1260, 1344, etc.

9. THE HUSBAND'S MESSAGE

MS. in Exeter Book, fols. I22b, I23a, I23b. The MS. is in parts injured or
illegible. The text is printed in Grein-Wiilcker, iii. pp. 218, 219 (Riddle 61)
and i. p. 306 ff. Ed. and transl. by Miss N. Kershaw ; see 6.

NOTES 159

I. ic : the piece of wood, or perhaps a length of reed, on which the message in
rune-letters is carved.

10. wordum wrixlan, 'make changes with words,' i.e. speak. The same
phrase occurs in 4 Gr 472. WUHdreS dael, ' a marvel.'

II. on sefan searolic, 'a clever device to think of.'
14. >ingum ge]?ydan, ' have purposely constrained me.'

19-22. ic . . . haese, ' I grew up and (now) I have to go on journeys to every

foreign land, to cross promptly the salt water at the bidding of my master.'

25. heahhafu, * deep waters.' The MS. reading heah hofu, ' high dwellings,'

does not make much sense.

27. ' How thou art minded concerning the love of (or, thy love for) my lord.'

29. >3Br, 'in him.' findest, 'shall find.' The O.E. present indie,
often has a future sense ; cf. 1. 44.

30. J>isne beam : i.e. myself, the speaker.

37. ]>e is obj. of Iggran, ' he bade me tell thee.'

40. geac : cf. 7 53-5 5-

41, 42. siJ»6S . . . gelettan, ' part thee from thy journey, hinder thee from
thy voyage.'

44. }>aet, 'until.'

46. monnan is perhaps pi. here, in which case J>ger means 'among whom.'

J>in, 'of thee.'
47 ff. ' To his mind, as he told me, no greater wish in the world can come true.'

)>ses >e, ' as.'

52-56. The sense of these lines is that the man has now become rich in his
adopted country and has a noble home with many servants.

60. mengan, ' mingle,' ' churn up' with oars ; cf. 1. 38, lagu drefde.

61. The expression wilna gad occurs in Beo. 1. 660 and 1. 949.

64, 65. gif . . . twega, ' if only he has thee, to crown the vows ye once
exchanged.'

66 ff. 'I turn together (i.e. rearrange) the letters S, R, EO, W, D, (and so)
declare by his oath that as long as life lasts he will fulfil the covenant and the
plighted vows of love which you and he uttered in earlier days.' The man
has carved on the piece of wood the single word ' sword ' to show that he has
sworn on his sword to be true to his love. The handle of a sword served in
Christian times as a crucifix on which to swear. There is evidence that among
the Germanic peoples in pre-Christian times it was the custom to swear solemn
oaths on the sword or other weapon. The formal breaking of a treaty seems to
have been accompanied by the breaking of swords on both sides, if we are to
judge by the passage in 4 E 263-4. If however siveord in the latter passage be
taken as 'swearing' (swerian) we may give it that meaning in the present
passage, with no change in the general sense.

10. WOLF AND EADWACER

MS. in Exeter Book, fol. loob. Text in Grein-Wiilcker, iii. p. 183.
9. ' I brooded in imagination (lit. expectation) on my Wolf.' The MS. read-
ing dogode makes no sense.

11. beaducafa refers to Wolf. bogum bilegde, ' surrounded me with
branches,' i.e. made an arbour to keep the rain out ; bogum might also mean
'with his arms,' i.e. embraced me.

13. wena £ine, 'my longing (lit. expectation) for thee.'

14. SCOCe gedydon is metrically faulty.

l6o ELEGIAC, LYRIC, AND MORALIZING

15. "Twas my sorrowing heart, not want of food (as my friends thought).'

meteliste is pi.

16, 17. The woman is taunting Eadwacer : * Wolf is bearing our poor child
(lit. whelp) to the forest ; 'tis easily parted what was never joined, our song
together.' The child may be either Wolfs or Eadwacer's, as uncerne is
ambiguous, meaning 'yours and mine' or ' his and mine.'

11. ELEGIAC AND MORALIZING PASSAGES IN BEOWULF

For MS. and editions see notes on 4.

A 3. J>urh sidne Sefan, ' in his comprehensive purpose.'

5. This line has suffered at the hands of a careless copyist. The MS. reading
lufan makes no sense, and it does not fit the metre; hlisan, 'fame,' 'vain-
glory,' exactly suits the sense of the passage ; latan h^vorfan is metrically
unusual, as the first stress should alliterate.
10. his goes with ende, ' the end of it. '
12. HO Wlh't = nauht, 'nothing.'

16. wendeft on willan, 'subjects him to his will.' J>aet wyrse, 'a

worse fate,' 'misfortune.'

17. oferhygda dsel, 'arrogance,' a common periphrasis.

18. 19. 86 weard and sawele hyrde refer either to a man's conscience or to
his guardian angel.

20. bisgum gebunden, 'in the bonds of affliction.' bona, 'the

slayer,' the devil, elsewhere called gastbona, ' spirit-slayer.'

21. fyrenum, 'with evil purpose,' lit. 'with crimes.'

22. bift : sc. the arrogant man.

24. The first half-line belongs to the D-type of verse ; it is scanned w6m

•wiind(p]rbebbdtim.

26. nallas On gylp SCleft, ' he does not give presents, as his reputation

requires.'

29. weorftmynda dsel : seel. i6n.

32. fehft Oj>er to, 'another succeeds him.'

33. unmurnlice, 'without a thought for him.'

34. egesan ne gymeft, 'heeds not fear,' i.e. need not fear punishment, or
else ' stands in no awe ' (of the dead man).

B 57. WUnode, ' was situated.'

58. nearocrseftum fsest, 'fast closed (or strongly built) by cunning art.'

60. hringa hyrde : i.e. a chieftain.

64. gode, ' the noble warriors.'

66. }>ara fte is not infrequently followed by a sing. verb.

67. gesawon Seledream, ' they once saw the joys of the hall,' implying that
they no longer do so.

70. After SCeal an infin. such as beon or weor<5an must be understood ; a
frequent omission with sceal, m<zg, etc.
73. gebad, 'suffered,' 'received.'

77. hseleftum be healfe, ' for the service of men ' ; cf. our phrase, ' on
behalf of.'

78. gomen, 'entertainment,' or 'playing.'

80. beateft, ' beats ' (with his hoofs).

81. forft onsended, ' sent on their way,' i.e. to their doom.

C 83. to gebidanne . . . galgan, ' to live to see his young son swinging
on the gibbet.'

NOTES I 6 I

84. wreceS, 'utters'; the original meaning of wrecan is 'to drive out,'
' expel ' ; cf. 14 401.

86. helpe is the obj. of gefremman.

88. Symble is for simle, 'ever,' 'continually.'

89 ff. oftres . . . gefondad, ' he (the old father) cares not to await another

heir in his kingdom (lit. towns), when one of them has through a violent death

(lit. the compulsion of death) met with outrage.' The MS. reading is retained

in the text : some editors, transposing deaftes and dseda, transl. ' has by the

necessity (i.e. inevitable consequences) of his deeds met with death.' This

certainly involves less strain in the sense of the words than the MS. reading,

which requires dada to be taken as equivalent to fyrendada.

91. yrfGWeardaS, if the correct reading, is the Northumbrian form of the gen. s. ;

cf. 4 A 63 n.

93. bure may mean either the whole house or an apartment in a house.

94. windgereste, ' wind-swept couch,' or we may read windge restcy with the
same meaning.

95. The meaning of reote is not certain'; Holthausen takes it as = r<zfe, 'joy' ;
rece, 'smoke,' has also been suggested; 'without smoke' would mean 'un-
inhabited.' ridend . . . hoftman is a parenthesis, 'out in the
darkness, swinging (on the gallows) the man sleeps.'

97. The father wishes to be alone with his grief.

12. A BAD CHARACTER

•

MS. in Exeter Book, fol. 83a. Text in Grein-Wiilcker, iii. p. I44ff.

4. bodan aercwide, ' the ancient saying of a messenger,' i.e. of a prophet or
a preacher.

6. gealdre, lit. 'incantation,' 'magic formula,' here refers to the words of
the wise man which enable one to distinguish the good man (Godes agen
beam) from the bad.

7. >one wacran is obj. of witan.

10. A negative is clearly needed here ; transl. ' who in this fleeting life does
not allow wanton pride to injure his understanding and drunkenness to rule him
in his days.'

12. druncen is here a noun.

13. mse^elhergendra, 'singers of praise'; lit. 'praising in the assembly.'
As this word occurs nowhere else it has been proposed to read mcepelhegendra,
' attenders at a meeting.'

16. WOrdum wrixlaft, ' exchange words,' perhaps referring to the poetic

language in which the lays were chanted ; cf. 14 G1 472 an^ 9 10.

16-18. Witan . . . WUnige : the meaning is not clear, but we may perhaps

transl. ' they are anxious to learn what battle-place lies inside the hall among

the men,' i.e. they are looking out for a quarrel.

21, 22. SWa . . . gedaeled, 'thus are (men's) characters variously assigned.'

23-25. sum . . . J>3Bt, ' some men are violently impelled to arrogance ;

inside them pride swells immoderate; there are too many of them.'

ungemedemad is p.p. of medemlan, 'to moderate,' formed from medeme,

'midway,' 'moderate.' Unstressed un- is a sign of late composition.

27. feondes : the devil.

28. breodaft, ' plays tricks,' ' uses stratagems,' a contraction of breogdaft, the
Kentish form of bregdaft, from bregd, 'trick.' bofi is from began,
bogian, 'to boast,' a word elsewhere found only in late writings.

M

I 62 ELEGIAC, LYRIC AND MORALIZING

30. wise, 'manner,' 'behaviour.'

31, 32. bij> . . . SCeawaft, 'this man has another trick, when he perceives a
pretext for a wicked act' ; finta properly means * tail.'

33. Note the rhyme ; see Introduction to 24.

35, 36. he ... gefremede, ' he is not conscious of the guilt incurred by the
malicious attack.'

40 ff. ' He sits, flushed with the feast, deluded by wine ; he designedly lets his
words go forth in a quarrelsome crowd, in a violent turmoil, fired with envy,
full of overweening pride, with spite and cunning.'
44. CUnnan, 'recognize.'

48 ff. hafaft . . . WUldorcyninge, ' a perverse life holds the creature hurrying
to perdition (grundfusne), alien to God the king of glory'; g36St = W.S.
giest, which properly means 'stranger,' 'new-comer,' here refers to the
'devil's child.'

13. THE FATES OF MEN

MS. in Exeter Book, fol. 873. Text in Grein-Wiilcker, iii. p. 148.

3. mid gebyrdum, lit. ' with birth,' may be merely a pleonastic addition to

cennaff, or else it may mean ' in order of birth,' 'in succession.'

5. gegaeft gearrimum, ' comes to pass in tale of years,' an expansion of SCO

tid cymeft.

9. Winter, 'the years.' bringaft, 'will bring.'

11. The MS. reading earfeftmacgum makes no sense, as sumum is sing.
Transl. ' To one man it comes to pass in his youth that the end arrives, dis-
tressing to his family, pitiful.'

12. SCCal, 'is destined.'

14. ne bift . . . geweald, 'such is not a man's ruling,' i.e. it is destiny.

15. iireoh, ' the fierce (sea) ' ; cf. eatoles (MS. eoletes], Beo. \. 224.

17. leomena leas, 'deprived of sight.'

18. folmum {Btfeohtan, ' fight his way with (i.e. trusting to) his hands.'

21. The man who is destined to be killed by falling from a tree the poet with
grim humour compares, first to a bird, then to a dislodged fruit : ' though wingless,
he flies, sails through the air, until in a moment he has ceased to be a fruit,' i.e.
he is no longer on the branch.
23. The MS. reading lengre gives no sense.

26. bi]? on si>e, ' departs. '

28. nest, 'provisions,' 'food' ; not to be confused with nest, 'nest.'
30. feormendra, ' cherishers,' friends to attend to his needs.

33. For the theme of the gallows see 11 0. ridan, 'dangle,'
' swing ' ; cf. the modern phrase ' ride at anchor.'

34. seomian hardly differs in sense from ridan.

36. him nimeft, 'takes from him.' heafodsyne, 'the beauty of
the head,' i.e. the likeness of a man.

38. facne : the ' outrage ' offered by the raven (lyftsceaj>an).

42. bift . . . noma, 'his name is accursed,' i.e. he dies a felon's death.

43. The MS. reading brondas pencan makes no sense ; for aJ>CCgan cf. 10 2 ;
cf. also 1. 47 infra.

46. read may be the adj. ' red,' or else the past tense (used as a perfect) of
reodan, ' redden.'

49. yrre ealoWOSan, ' furious with ale '; wosa means 'juice,' 'liquid.'

50. bift . . . hraed, ' he has been too prompt of speech.'

NOTES 163

52. J>OIine . . . Sine, ' when he is unable with his mind to impose restraint
(lit. measure) on his mouth.'

56. ' And men call him a suicide,' i.e. they say his intemperate speech led to
his death. Sylfcwalu means the act of suicide, not the self-slayer, so that we
should have expected sylfcwalan.

62. msegburge I an analogical form for the usual -byrig, perhaps pointing to a
comparatively late date for the poem.

63. 'Whatsoever any man may be able to continue to hold.'

64 ff. The remainder of the poem is of inferior quality and seems to belong to
some other poem of the type of 22 B.

69. gewealdenne, ' under control,' hence 'practised,' 'consummate.'

70. tir is a common poetical word, especially in religious verse. It seems to
have meant originally 'splendour,' hence 'glory,' 'renown.' tsefle, Lat.
tabula, a game of the nature of draughts or chess.

72, 73. The MS. reading is ungrammatical, so that a change is needed, either of
ivundorgiefe to wundorgiefu, or of weorfieft to weorpaft.

73. The MS. reading goldsmij>e is difficult, unless we regard it as a fern, abstract
noun, 'the smith's art.'

74 ff. ' Often he gives confidence to (gehyrdeft), and equips excellently, the
soldiers of the great king ; he (the king) gives him broad lands as a reward.'
The skilled armourer, that is, makes good armour for the fighting man, who is
thereby rendered more confident. Hyrdan is derived from heard, 'bold.'
The prefix bryten- or breoton-, meaning 'great,' 'vast,' occurs in
several compounds, and is not to be confused with Breten (Breoton, Bryten)
meaning 'Britain.'

79. dream : noise of revelry, singing in chorus, etc. ; cf. Beo. 1. 88, where Grendel
dream gehyrde hhtdne in healle.

83, 84. sceardfe]?er . . . neomegende : the MS. reading gearo se ]>c

hleapeft is obviously wrong. The emendations suggested by some editors, viz.
scearo or sceard for gearo, correct the alliteration but do not greatly improve the
sense, scearo being a fern, noun meaning ' cutting ' or ' share,' while sceard is
an adj. meaning ' notched.' The emendation SC6ardfe)>er, adopted in the
text, would mean 'a notched or cut quill,' and this meaning is repeated in
nsegl, the plectrum used in playing the harp. A careless copyist might easily
write se J>e for feper, s and f being much alike in O.E. MSS. ; see note
on 1. 93.

84. neomegende, ' whining,' is Grein's emendation for the MS. reading
neome cende. Neomian is not found elsewhere, but would correspond to the
O.H. German niumon, 'to chant.' neod, 'desire,' 'pleasure,' not
to be confused with nied, nyd, 'necessity,' which in late MSS. is often
written neod.

86. heoroSWCalwe, ' sword-swallow,' a picturesque variant for a hawk.

90. SO waelisca, 'the Welsh (hawk).' WSedum I the hood or jacket

worn by the hawk.

93. The MS. reading weorod anes makes no sense. The copyist clearly had

before him zveoroda nerged, ( the Saviour of hosts (i.e. of men) ' ; he mistook

r for s, and ged for god.

96. The prefix eormen- occurs in several compounds such as cormengrimd,

eormencynn, with the meaning ' great ' ; cf. the similar use of sin- ; also

bryten, 1. 75.

164 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

III. NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

14. BEOWULF

A 1. Hunferft : the initial vowel of the stressed prefixes and- and un- is in
O. E. verse occasionally preceded by the aspirate in the MSS. Unferth was the
king's J?yle, O.N. fiulr, i.e. an orator clever at repartee, whose function was to
amuse the company in the hall. He may have been the earlier stage of the king's
jester of later times.

2. On another occasion also, Beo. 11. 1165-1167, Unferth is mentioned as seated
at the king's feet.

3. Onband beadlirune: lit. 'unloosed his hostile private thoughts,' a
picturesque way of saying that he gave vent to his irritation.

5. he ne U]?e, ' he would not admit. '

8. Bieca is mentioned in 1 25 as ruler of the Brondings.

21. Heal?0-Reamas : the MS. reading is emended according to the form of the

name in 1 63.

24. ' Where he possessed people, walled town and rings,' a way of saying he

was the hereditary chief of the Heatho-Reamas.

26. Slimi B. : Breca. Softe, 'in very deed,' ' as a matter of fact.'

27. wyrsan ge]?mges, ' a worse issue,' i.e. failure.

29. Beowulf has come to Heorot with the special purpose of ridding the Danes
of Grendel, an ogre who nightly devours some of Hrothgar's men.

32. Both worn and fela are nouns meaning 'large number,' hence 'much,'
* many. '

33. druncen, 'having drunk,' 'prompted by drink.'

34. from, ' concerning ' ; cf.\. 83.

42. heard : sc. swords.

43. wiht, 'at all,' strengthens the negative; cf. our use of 'whit,' 'bit,' and
pas, point in French.

48. wado weallende occurs also in 1. 83.

56. fah feondscafta, 'a fierce, destructive enemy,' one of the sea-monsters,

called laftgeteonan in l. 61 and manfordsedlan in l. 65.

62. J>enode, 'served,' 'treated.'

63. deoran, ' precious.' The words deor, ' brave,' and diere, ' dear,' ' precious,'
are often confused by scribes in Beo. and other poetical texts.

64. 'The wicked destroyers did not have the festal joy of eating (J>egon) me.'

nses, like nalles, is commonly used as a negative particle rather stronger
than ne, no,, and no.

70. The MS. reading ford makes no sense ; transl. ' so that never afterwards
around the tall (ship) did they hinder mariners from their course.'

71. lade : gen. s.

77. By nicor is meant some fabulous sea-creature, probably originating in dis-
torted accounts of seals or walruses. They lie about on rocky shelves by the
sea; cf. 1. 235.

78. heardran feohtan, 'a bitterer fight.'

79. earmran, 'in worse plight.'

82. flod aefter farofte, 'the current (bore me) along the channel,' an
expansion of S36 0>baer. Finna land : see 1 20, 79, notes.

83. fram : see 1. 34 n. wiht is obj. of secgan.

84. searonifta : part. gen. depending on wiht.

NOTES 165

85. billa brogan, ' terrible deeds of the sword ' ; brogan is ace. in
apposition with wiht.

86. ne gehW3eJ>er incer, * nor either of you,' neither you nor he.

88. no ... gylpe : Beowulf means that it is nothing to be proud of that he
is superior to Breca and Unferth.

89. Unferth's treacherous attack on his brothers is alluded to again in
Beo. 1. 1 167. to banan : a common form of the predicate with weorftan.
91. J>eah . . . dllge is ironical, 'though thy wit be so good.'

B. For an account of Grendel and his origin see 1. 217 ff. and 18 B.

97. geaiWOSt wisse : lit. ' knew most readily,' i.e. made quite certain of,
identified.

98. faettum fahne, 'decorated with plates of gold.' The gilded roof of
Heorot is several times mentioned in the poem as a prominent feature of the
wonderful hall ; cf. Beo. \. 926, geseah steapne hr of golde fahne.

101. heardran haele, 'with crueller fortune,' i.e. for himself.

102. line : lit. ' warrior ' ; it must be remembered that Grendel is a degenerate
human being ; cf. 1. 214 and 17 21, 22.

103. dreamum bedseled, ' bereft of joys,' i.e. cut off from human fellowship.

Onarn, 'gave way,' 'opened.'

104. fyrbendum, ' fire-bands,' i.e. clamps of forged iron. hire : the
door.

106. The dropping of the aspirate from hrape at an early period is to be noted.

mujJan, 'opening.'

107. fagne, ' patterned,' i.e. paved with a rough mosaic of stones. The road
leading from the sea-shore to Heorot is called stanfah, Beo. 1. 320.

108. Stod, ' flashed,' cf. 5 36.

109. For the doubled g to indicate that the preceding i is long see 16 182 n.
114 f. anra . . . lice, 'part the life of each one from his body'; anra is
part. gen. depending on gehwylceS and means lit. 'of the ones,'\ 'of the
individuals.'

116. ne . . . gen, 'it was not fated.'

118. ofer, 'after.'

120. under . . . WOlde, ' was going to make a sudden snatch,' lit. ' to

proceed with sudden grips ' ; under occasionally indicates the circumstances

under which a thing takes place.

125. For the prefix sin-, syn-, 'great,' 'spacious,' cf. syndolh, 1. 199, and

4 0 94 n.

129. rinc : Beowulf.
130.* he : Beowulf.

131. Wlft earm gesset seems to mean ' raised himself on his elbow.'

132. fyrena hyrde, ' lord (lit. shepherd) of sins,' sinful being.

133 f. middangeardes and eorj>an depend on men.

136. no ... meahte, 'none the more was he able to get away3; aer is a
contracted form of the compar. aror. For fram used as an adv. cf. 14 A 45-
141. sefenspraece : i.e. his promise to Hrothgar.

143. For the meaning of eoten see 4 B 73 n.

144. S6 msera, 'the infamous creature.' )>26r, 'if; cf.\. 180.

147. J>3Bt . . . ateah, 'that was a grievous journey that the destructive
creature took to Heorot.'

151. The meaning of the MS. reading eahtscerwen is not known. The
emendation ealuscerpen would mean ' ale- vomiting,' the result of terror.
The Danes outside in the town are listening to the noise of the terrific struggle.

I 66 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

152. The prefix rggn- or ren-, like sin-, denotes great size or strength ;
cf. Gothic ragin-.

155. he: the hall; J>aes, 'so.'

157. The shocks of the combatants bumping against the walls starts the tables

from the platform running round the hall.

159. golde geiegnad : a phrase used to show the splendour of the hall inside

as well as outside ; cf. 1. 98 n.

160 ff. J>SBS anticipates the noun -clause beginning with Jycet and need not be

transl. : * the wise men of the Scyldings (Danes) never expected in the past that

any man with moderate force (gemete) could ever break up that hall (hit), so

handsome and adorned with ivory, or by cunning unpin it, unless the fire's

embrace should engulf it in smoky flame.'

165. niwe, 'afresh,' emphasizes geneahhe, 'without ceasing.' stod,

' fell upon ' ; cf. 1. 108 n.

167. Of Wealle : from the wall of the town.

168. Godes andsacan : Grendel.

169. sar, 'his hurt.'

170. hsefton for haftum, 'to the captives of hell,' i.e. his kinsfolk, who are
supposed to hear Grendel's cries.

172. This line occurs again, 1. 188 ; the addition of £ysses lifes merely helps
to fill out the line. Note the prominent stress on the demonstrative pronouns ;
see Appendix, § 1 1 (e).

173. eorla hleo : Beowulf. senige ]?inga, ' for anything,' ' by any
means. '

177. eorl : sing, used for plur. Beowulf's men, now fully awake, try to help
their leader. lafe, ' sword,' lit. 'heirloom.'

179. ftaer, 'if only,' a common meaning of Jxzr with the subjunct. ; cf. 1. 144.

180. J>8Bt is explained by the /^/-clause in 1. 183.

183. Sawle : Grendel's life. ]?3et . . . nolde, ' that no choicest

blade on earth, no war-sword, would injure (lit. 'greet') that giant foe; he
(Beowulf) therefore had renounced weapons of victory, every sword.'
187. his: Grendel's.

190. feonda here means ' fiends,' demons of hell.

191 ff. S6 J>6 . . . gefremede, 'he who had in joy of heart committed so
many crimes against the race of men, perceived that,' etc. )?set pre-

pares for the /^/-clause in 1. 194.
195. ac, 'for.'

203. }>e is the instrumental case with the comparative, the original of the
modern 'the' in such phrases as 'the more the merrier,' etc.
0211. 1)888 J>6, 'so far as.'

213. WiaBClastas tr8Bd, ' lived an outcast ' ; see 1. 1 02 n.
216 ff. no . . . gasta, 'they (men) do not know of any father (of Grendel),
whether any of the mysterious spirits was once his father ' ; acenned is not
needed, except to fill out the line.

219. The first half-line is an A-type, the last two sylls. -hleojm taking a
* resolved ' secondary stress ; see Appendix, § 8.

223. milgemearces defines feor, ' measured in miles.'

224. hllngde ' the MS. reading hrinde is kept by some editors and transl.
'covered with hoar-frost.' The word hringed \?> used in the poem (1. 1245) to
describe a chain-shirt, so that we may here transl. ' twisted,' ' tangled.'

226. The subject of m<Bg is man understood.

227. J>ses, 'so.'

NOTES 167

231. aer need not be transl. ; it prepares us for the following <zr-clause.

232. Ofre, 'bank,' 'shore'; cf. Germ. Ufer.

233. heoril, ' of good omen ' ; the adj. unheore, ' ill-omened,' « monstrous,'
occurs several times in the poem ; cf. Germ. Ungehetier^ ' monster.'

D 241. lastas, ' the tracks ' of the mother of Grendel, an ogress who, planning
to avenge her son's death, had carried off by night from Heorot one of
Hrothgar's most valued thanes named ^Eschere, and escaped to her haunts in
the mysterious mere.

245. >one selestan : sc. yEschere.

246. )>ara J?e : see 12 44 «.

247. beam : Hrothgar.

250. nicorhusa, 'caves,' 'hollows in the cliff-side' ; for nicor see 1. 77 n.

251. feara Sum, 'one of a few,' i.e. accompanied by a few men.
257. weorce : predicative use of dat., 'for a trouble,' 'grievous.'
259. oncyft repeats the idea contained in weorce.

261. to is an adv. and has a strong stress, ' the people looked on ' ; cf. 19
I78n. SSBgOn occurs several times in O.E. verse for the more usual
sawon ; both are from the W. Germ, sa-ywon.

262. hatan = hatum ;• song = sang.

263. flislic, 'rousing,' 'inspiring.'

264. sefter, 'along,' 'across,' a fairly common meaning.

265. SUnd Clinnian, ' swimming,' lit. 'testing the sea.'

269. wyrmas, 'serpents' or 'dragons,' perhaps the same creatures as the

stzdracan of 1. 266.

273. him . . . Stod, 'stuck in his vitals.'

275. Slindes J>e SSBnra, 'the more sluggish in swimming,' i.e. he ceased

swimming. fte . . . fomam, ' whom death destroyed ' ; fte hyne

marks an early stage in the development of the rel. pronoun ; cf. 1 I33n.

277 f. hearde . . . genSBged, 'boldly seized and vigorously assailed.'

nifta is gen. plur. used as an adv.

280. gist: here 'strange creature'; giest often means ' new arrival,' or even
' intruder.'
£ 282. hiorosercean bser : a periphrasis for 'advanced.'

284. anes mannes : of himself.

288. Stondan is to be taken with geseah supra, ' saw a stone arch standing.'

291. unbyrnende, 'without being burnt.'

292. deor, ' the bold (Beowulf).'

296. hlynnan is compl. to becom, 'his voice penetrated under the white
cliff, resounding with defiant (heafto) clearness.'

299. from : adv., ' forth.'

301-302. hruse . . . beorge, ' the ground resounded, on fire under the cliff.'
born is past indie, of biernan ; cf. \. 368. Some edd. keep the MS. reading
biorn, and, putting no stop after beorge, transl. ' the warrior, the lord of the
Geats, heaved up his shield against the terrible creature.'

309. rond : Beowulfs shield had been specially made for the occasion, very
large and entirely of iron.

311. he : Beowulf.

315 ff. J>onne . . . moste, ' than his purpose had sought (i.e. than he had
expected), if only he had been allowed to prevail on that occasion, on the first
day (of its use).'

320. No meaning can be given to the MS. reading incge. Incg or Ing may be
the name of the last owner of the sword.

I 68 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

323. bysigum gebaeded, ' oppressed by anxiety. '

329. efte Sift, 'an easy (i.e. willing) step'; only dire necessity forced Beowulf

to give ground.

335. fta aglsecean, ' the formidable (adversaries).'

336-337. hrefter . . . Stefne, ' his interior once more welled up with a fiery

blast.'

342 ff. hiora . . . ]>enceft, ' in one of them (Wiglaf) his heart was hot with

anxious fear ; (the tie of) kindred can never change for him who thinks aright.'

346 ff. Wiglaf is a kinsman of Beowulf ; in 1. 350 he is called a ' Waegmund-

ing.' The young man's mother may have been a Scylfing, i.e. of the Swedish

royal family. His father had been in the service of the Swedish king Onela.

349. he : Beowulf. The loyal retainer was expected to repay his lord in the hour

of need by unstinted support in battle ; this duty is often alluded to in Bee. and

16 ; cf. also 5 38-41.

352. forhabban, ' restrain himself.'

355. For Ohthere see 4 G. A passage is here omitted in which we learn that

the sword and other armour came to Weohstan, who gave them to his son

Wiglaf. The latter then addresses his men, saying that in honour bound he

must go to the help of his lord ; cf. 11. 404, 405.

358. laest eall tela, 'perform all well,' i.e. do all that befits a noble warrior.

360. be fte lifigendum, * in thy lifetime ' ; cf. 9 69.

363. fullSBSttl is an early form of the 1st pers. sing. pres. indie.

366. niosian, which takes the genitive, is here compl. to CWOH1.

368. wift ronde, 'at the edge.'

373. msegenstrengo is dat. sing. ; it is an indeclinable noun.

374 f. ]>3Bt . . . genyded, ' so that, driven with fury, it stuck fast in the

(dragon's) head.'

380. SO fte, ' which,' is occasionally used for seo <5e ; transl. ' which, as I

have heard, overdid every stroke with a sword,' i.e. put too much strength into

the blow.

382. naes . . . Sel, ' he was none the better for it,' i.e. it handicapped him.

385. }>a . . . ageald, ' when space allowed ' ; he retreated in order to make

a more effective rush forward.

386., heals : ( Beowulf s) neck.

387. banum, 'tusks.'

392. heafblan, properly 'head,' here means 'safety.'

394. nioftor hwene, ' a little lower,' i.e. in a spot unprotected by his bony

plates or scales.

401. feih . . . Wiaec, 'valour drove out life,' i.e. the brave man slew the

dragon.

F 415. he : the flame.

418. geomeowle : there is no other mention of Beowulf s queen in the poem.

422. Wigendes egesan, 'terror of the foe (lit. fighter).'

425. The MS. reading hlczw on liftc is a metrically faulty half-line, unparalleled

elsewhere in Beo.t except in 1. 779 (14 161), as the i of hlitSe is short, and

could not take the stress (A-type) ; see Appendix, §§ 3 and 7. For hlcew see 4

i Son.

428. bronda lafe, ' the leavings of the flames,' i.e. the ashes.

430. findan, 'devise,' a not uncommon meaning.

431. on beorg dydon, 'placed in the mound.'
435. lifaft, 'remains.'

437. riodan is for ridon, by « back-vowel umlaut.'

NOTES 169

438. ealra twelfe, ' twelve (chosen) from all.'
440. wrecan, ' utter' ; cf. 14 G 471-

442. duguftum may here mean 'as good custom requires,' i.e. 'duly';

dugllft often means 'noble company,' 'noble custom,' 'etiquette.'

444. ]?OIine . . . SCile, ' when he must go hence.'

G 461. glcedne, ' prosperous,' ' flourishing,' and so good-tempered ; cf. 4 E

225 n.

463. on geflit faran, 'race.'

468 f. worn merely repeats ealfela. Word . . . gebunden, 'de-

vised other words bound up with truth,' i.e. gave a fresh rendering of the
familiar story ; or else we may regard the sentence as a parenthesis and transl.
' one word found another bound with truth,' i.e. the apt words suggested and
succeeded each other. If we adopt the second rendering, S6Cg must be taken
as a repetition of guma in 1. 466.

471. ' To tell happily a well- wrought tale.'

472. WOrdum wrillan, ' to make changes of words,' is an apt characterization
of the peculiar style of A.-S. verse composition.

H 475. Cynna means 'genealogy,' 'family history.'

477. fill, ' cup.'

478. e)?elwearde : her husband, King Hrothgar.

479. bliftne : supply bean.

482. ides Helminga : Wealhtheow.

483. dllgu)?e Ond geogoj^e : the older men and the younger ones sat at
separate tables.

484. The queen comes last to the chief guest, Beowulf, as a special mark of
honour.

488 ff. ]?aes J?e . . . frofre, ' for that her desire had been fulfilled, namely,
that she might put her trust in a warrior for the relief of their injuries.' The
long-prayed-for rescuer had arrived.

492. gyddode means ' made a speech ' ; giedd is a speech or a song, contrasted
with ordinary talk ; cf. 22 220 n.

494. Healfdenes sunu : Hrothgar ; cf. 4 A 61.

496. maran weorode, ' with a greater company. '

499. The rhyme here may be unintentional ; internal rhyme becomes fairly
common in later verse, see 24, Introd. Note.

503, 505. Hrothwulf, King Hrothgar's brother's son, appears to have been in
later years at enmity with his cousins, Hrothgar's sons.

506. Segen : Lat. signum, a banner on a staff, a standard ; another name is
hiltecumbor.

512 ff. ' I have not heard that many warriors have given to others by the ale-
bench four gifts (lit. treasures) in more friendly fashion. Around the dome of
the helmet the border (walu) wound in wire served as a protection outside, so
that no hard and dangerous sword (lit. ' leaving of files ') could injure it, when
the warrior had to advance against fierce (foes).'
520. eorla hleo, 'protector of warriors,' i.e. Hrothgar.
522. ]?ara anum Stod, ' on one of which appeared.'

526-527. naefre . . . feollon, ' never did that famous (prince's) prowess fail
in the battle- van, when men were dropping dead.'

532. hofe sinum : Hrothgar's private apartments in another part of the royal
house. His retainers sleep in the banqueting-hall (reced).

535. bencj>elu : the raised flooring running round the walls of Heorot, on
which the narrow ale-benches were placed.

NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

537. faege may mean that this attendant afterwards falls a victim to Grendel's

mother ; or it may be used merely because it alliterates with fus.

545. efne SWylce msela, 'as often as,' lit. 'just such (a number of) times.'

I 547. eorla hleo : Hygelac.

548. Hrethel was Hygelac's father and Beowulf's grandfather. lafe,

'sword,' properly 'something left behind,' 'heirloom.'
550. On SWGOrdes had, 'in the form of a sword.'

552. Seofan J^lisendo means according to some editors seven thousand hides of
land. In another passage Hygelac gives two warriors ' a hundred thousand of
land and closed rings ' ; see 4 Or 393, 394.

553 ff. Uncle and nephew are to share the royal domain and its privileges.
555, 556. oftrum . . . W<BS, ' the royal authority (would fall) more par-
ticularly to that one (i.e. Hygelac) who was the better (i.e. senior).'
J. In connexion with this section the student is recommended to read
K. Stjerna's Essays on Questions connected %vith the O.E. Poem of Beowulf,
translated and edited by J. R. Clark Hall, 1912.

562. regnhearde : seel. i52n.

563. bence I outside the hall, at the main entrance.

566. ufan grseg apparently refers to the steel heads of the spears.

571. sund cunnian : see l. 266 n.

574. inwitfeng is in apposition with hildegrap, and aldre with hre]?re.

580. SWinlicum I a metal figure of a wild boar set on the top of the helmet
worn by the Geats and other Germanic tribes.

585. an foran means 'in the front rank' (i.e. in a class by itself).

586. atertanum fab : decorated with a twig-like pattern produced by a
corrosive (lit. poison).

594. ealdsweord eotenisc occurs in 4 G 378, also in Beo. 1. 2616 ; see 4 B

73 n.

609. hylt I the hilt was all that remained of the sword ; Beowulf presents it to

King Hrothgar.

610 f. 01 ... fyrngewinnes, * the beginning of that ancient feud was

engraved,' a reference to the Flood, which according to the Hebrew legend

destroyed the 'giants.' Either a few words relating to the legend or more

probably a picture illustrating it was engraved on the hilt. The giants are

described as descended from Cain ; see 18 A 23-26.

613. frecne geferdon, 'they behaved defiantly.'

618. hwam : either 'by whom' or 'for whom.'

620. wyrmfah : cf. wyrmlicum fah, 6 95.

15. THE BATTLE OF BRUNANBURH

MSS. The poem is preserved in five MSS. of the A.-S. Chronicle. The text
here printed is that of the Parker MS. Edition in the Battle of Maldon

and Short Poems from the A.-S. Chronicle, by W. J. Sedgefield, 1904 ; also (with
transl.) by Miss N. Kershaw ; see 6-

6. hamora lafum : an expression for a sword, lit. ' what is left by the
hammers ' ; cf. Beo. 1. 2829.

7. Eadweardes : son and successor of Alfred the Great.

12. the MS. reading dennade occurs nowhere else ; we should perhaps read

(Sdnade ' grew wet,' from ftdn ' wet.'

24. Myrce : the Mercians fought under ^thelstan.

NOTES I 7 I

26. Anlafe I the English form of the Scand. Olafr. Two leaders of this
name appear to have taken part in the battle.

31. eorlas : see 16 6 n. eorlas is the A.-S. form of the Sc. jarlar.

33. bregu: Anlaf.

41. freonda gefylled, 'with friends killed,' lit. 'killed as to friends,' a

curious construction.

43. forgrunden seems to be for forgrundenne, as it refers to SIUIU.

54. Dynges mere : not identified.

55. Dyflen \ Dublin was the capital of a Norse kingdom at this period.
60-65. With this passage we may compare Beo. 11. 3024-3027, se wonna hrefn,

fus ofer fagum (sceal) fela rcordian, earne secgan hu he cet ate speow, fienden he
iui(S wulfe w&l reafode ; cf. also 16 106 n.

16. THE BATTLE OF MALDON

MS. The only MS. known was destroyed by fire in 1731, so that we are
dependent on the text printed by Thomas Hearne in his History of Glastonbury r,
published in 1726. The first few lines were missing from the MS. Text.

The text has been frequently reprinted, e.g. in Grein-Wiilcker, i. p. 358 ff.

Edition by W. J. Sedgefield, 1904.

2. The subject of het is Byrhtnoth the ealdorman. King ^Ethelred's deputy
in Essex.

6. COrl I Byrhtnoth. In older O. E. verse eorl means ' warrior ' ; in the tenth
century it came to be used as equivalent to the Danish jarl, and in the later part
of A.-S. Chron. is used instead of the older ealdorman.

9. cniht : the Offan mseg of 1. 5.

11. his is extra metrum ; cf. 1. 49, second half; see Appendix, § 7.
18. rad : Byrhtnoth alone remained on horseback.

22. The first half line is metrically faulty, as it belongs to none of the usual
types ; cf. 1. 263 n.

23. J?3Br . . . W3BS, 'where those most dear to him were.'

24. heorftweiod, 'family retainers*; cf. 11. 204, 261.

27. On beot, 'threateningly.'

30. most : here 'must' ; the original sense was 'may.'

31. wift, ' in return for ' ; cf. 1. 39.

33 f. ' Than that we should engage in so fierce a battle ' ; forgyldon and
dtdon are pres. subjunct.

34. speda]? to ]?am, ' have the means to do that,' i.e. if you can raise the
money.

38. on ... dom, 'at their discretion.'

40. US : dat. used reflexively with gangan.

41. COW frizes healdan, ' keep the peace with you,' ; frizes has an adverbial
sense here.

47. ealde is either wk. ace. n. sing, or ace. pi.

48. COW . . . deah, ' are bad for you ' ; the use of the sing, verb when )>e
has a plur. antecedent is not unusual.

49. abeod : see note on 1. ii.

51. The contracted form stynt (stenf] could not occur in the older verse,
where the uncontracted forms of the second and third pers. of the pres. indie,
are alone used.

53. ^E]?elredes : king of England.

54. feallan SCeolon is metrically faulty ; see 14 425 n.

172 NARRATIVE AND DESCRIPTIVE

55. to is extra metrum, see n. on 1. 1 1 ; such ' grace-notes ' are very rare
in the older verse in A-, D- and E-types of half-lines ; cf. 1. 189, and see
Appendix, § 7.

56. gangon I pres. subjunctive.

57. Note the alliteration of the f instead of the it of un-, which in the older
verse would have received strong stress and alliterated.

64. mihte : supply feran.

66. lucon, ' barred ' (the passage).

68. Pantan : the Black water. mid . . . bestodon: seen, on 1. ii.

71. fyl gename, 'met his death'; fyl = E.W.S. fiell, connected vi\\hfeallan.

72. ]>Bi . • . gearowe is metrically unusual, geaiOWG being superfluous.

74. bficge : the bridge, which spanned the narrow channel which remains full of
water at low tide.

75. 86 . . . Wlllfstan : half-lines of this metrical type, with only one
strong stress, which falls on the last syll. but one, occur quite frequently in
Beowulf and other verse, but only in the first half of the line. They are
especially common in the present poem in that position ; see Appendix, § 9.

84. See 1. 1 1 n.

87. Upgang . . . moston, ' might be allowed to come up,' over the
'ford' or shallows, and finally up the bank; cf. A.-S. Ckron., anno 1046,
forwerndon heom . . . upganges.

92. Byrhtelmes beam, i.e. Byrhtnoth. Byrhthelm or Bryhthelm is the
first part of Brighton, Bryhthelmestun.

95. WSelstOWe wealdan, ' possess the slaughter-place,' a common phrase,
used also in prose, for gaining the victory.

98. Wegon : non-W.S. forms with e for W.S. <? occur several times in the poem.
102. Wlhagan for wighagan : the defence formation with overlapping shields,
perhaps borrowed originally from the Romans.

106. Birds of prey and wolves are the customary attendants on battle in A.-S.
and O.Icel. poetry; cf. 15 60-65 n-> and 19 162-167.

113. W8elr3este geceas, ' chose the bed of death,' a picturesque way of saying
' died.'

115. his: Byrhtnoth's.

118. SWenges ne Wymde : cf. Beo. \. 1520, hond sweng ne ofteah.
120. )>aes, 'for that.' fteoden: Byrhtnoth.

122. Stemnetton, * fought in their turn ' ; stemn means ' term of service ' ;
cf. A.-S. Citron., anno 894 (Parker MS.), hie haefdon pa heora stemn gesetenne.
125. on here means 'from.'
131. beornes : one of the Danes.

134. SUj>erne, 'thrown from the south,' so that Byrhtnoth, dazzled by the sun's
rays, could not completely avoid the foeman's spear.

143. he : Byrhtnoth.

144. he : the Dane.

146. se . . . bli)>ra : for metre see n. on 1. 1 1 .

147. man : Byrhtnoth.

149. drenga : a Danish word for a man-at-arms; O.N. dreiigr.

150. 86, ' it,' the spear. to is an adv., 'towards him.'

151. J>egen : Byrhtnoth.

155. Wulfmser : not the Wulfmser of 1. 1 1 3.

156. forheardne : sc. spear.

157. 86 : the Dane.

158. his: Wulfmser's.

NOTES 173

159. SCCg : another Dane.

160. beornes : Byrhtnoth's.

164. to raj>e, 'just in time.'

165. >a amyrde, ' by checking.'

167. he: Byrhtnoth.

170. baed seems to have its later sense of ' ordered.'

180. hi : sc. sawle ; ace. s. helsceaftan : see 1. 86 n.

182. big for bi : ig is occas. used to denote a long i ; cf. 14 109 n.

183. As there is no alliteration in this line Grein and other editors read bewegen,
' killed,' to alliterate with Wulmser.

185. The first half-line is metrically faulty, as in a B-type the first stressed syll.

alliterates, not the second ; see Appendix, § 3. For hi we should have

expected pa.

190. ' In the trappings to which he had no right,' i.e. Byrhtnoth's weapons,

armour, etc.

195. J?onne . . . Waere, 'than was fitting'; mseft properly means 'due

proportion.'

197. him to dugll)>e, ' for their advantage.'

198. On dSBg, 'on a day,' 'one day.'

202. Second half-lines of the A-type preceded by one or more unstressed

syllables extra met rum occur several times in this poem, but are extremely rare

in the older verse ; see 11. 55, 240.

207. ofter twega, 'one of two things,' * either.'

215. The subject of mSBg is man understood.

226. >aet, 'until.'

239. wende . . . man : J?3es is gen. governed by wende, and prepares the
way for the /^-clause in 1. 240,

240. J?am I the def. article is used in this poem much more frequently than
in the older verse. The metre of this line is irregular ; each half-line is an A-
type preceded by weak-stress sylls. extra metrum. Further, in the second
half-line WSSre takes the alliteration and priority of stress over hlafoid.

242. SCyldburh is the wighaga of 1. 102.

249. embe : Kentish for ymbe. There is a village in Essex called Sturmer,

probably named after the river Stour.

263. J>8Bt . . . gewrecan is metrically faulty ; see 1. 22 n.

265. 86 gy Sel, ' the hostage. ' Young sons of kings or chiefs who were taken

or exchanged as pledges of future good conduct were brought up at the foreign

court and may even have spent the rest of their lives there ; see A.-S. C/iron.,

anno 755, alle Icegon butan anum Bryttiscum gisle.

271. Sefre embe Stunde, 'ever and anon,' 'frequently.'

283. The meaning of cellod is not known ; cf. 5 30.

284. l&rig occurs also in 19 239 ; its meaning is not known, but it may be
connected with the Latin lorum, 'strap.'

288. The second half-line is metrically faulty, as the first strong stress alone

should alliterate ; see Appendix, § 3.

300. The MS. reading wigelines is clearly for wigelmes, i.e. Wighelmes. Unless

Wighelm is another name for Thurstan, 'Wighelm's son' must be another

fighter, unnamed.

313. ]?e Uie, ' in proportion as our ' ; )>e is instrum.

318. me is reflex, dat., like him in 1. 300. This reflex, dat. is common with

verbs of motion.

325. The end of the poem has beenjost.

1/4 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

IV. BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

17. A. C^DMON'S HYMN

MSS. (i) The Northumbrian version is in the text of one of the earliest (early
eighth century) Latin MSS. of Bede's History, now in the Cambridge University
Library, KK.V. 16, fol. I28b. (2) The W. S. version occurs in several of the
Latin MSS. of the History. Text in Grein-Wtilcker, ii. pp. 316, 317.

The Northumbrian text is, together with that of Bede's Death-Song, the oldest
extant specimen of A.-S. speech; the spelling should be noted, e.g. gidanc for
later ge&anc, heben for hefen (heofon), and tt for the later use of the rune for w.
3. uuldurfadi4r is gen. s.

6. til is a North, form, which survived in Middle English and afterwards came
into the literary language.

8. sefter I here an adv. tiadse : North, for W.S. teode.

9. folda : the final n of weak noun inflexions was early lost in O. North.

B. BEDE'S DEATH-SONG

MS. In the text of a Latin MS. of the ninth century in the town-library of St.
Gallen, Switzerland. Text printed in Sweet's Oldest English Texts,

p. 149.

1-5. Transl. ' Before the inevitable journey no one will be more thoughtful than
he need be to reflect, ere his going hence, what of good or of evil may be
adjudged his spirit after his death-day.'

18. BIBLICAL AND RELIGIOUS PASSAGES IN BEOWULF

3. feoifan, 'far back in time,' a common meaning.

5. SWa is here used as a rel. pronoun ; it is extra metrum, a rare metrical licence
in Beo. ; see note on 16 55, also on 1. 19 ; see also Appendix, § 7.

6. SUH.nan and monan are either genitives depending on leoman, or else they
are ace. s., with leoman ace. pi. in apposition with them; transl. 'exultant in
victory, He placed the brightness of the sun and moon as a light for land-
dwellers,' or else 'placed the sun and moon, the luminaries, as,' etc.

11. drintguman : the Danish followers of Hrothgar.

13. feond On helle : the poet at one time speaks of the ogre Grendel as
living in a swamp, at others as confined in hell.

14. gJBSt I prob. an Anglian form of the W.S. giest, 'stranger,' 'visitant';
but giest and gdst, 'spirit,' are frequently confused in the A.-S. poetical MSS. ;
cf. 4 183 n. and 23 45 n.

16. fen Ond fasten, * his fastness ' in the swamp. Fens and woods were
used by fleeing troops or outlaws as places of refuge. fifelcynnes
eard, i.e. ' swamp.' Yoiftfel see 2 42 n.

17. Wer : Grendel has the form of a gigantic man.

19 f. in ... cynne : see l. 5 n. ]?one cwealm . . . )>aes . . . slog,

' the death which he inflicted on Abel.'

21. The first he refers to Cain, the second to God.

22. In verse, prepositions often follow their case so as to allow of a B- or an
E-type of half-line ; see Appendix, § I2d.

23. lintydias, 'monstrous beings,' or as we should say, 'fabulous creatures.'

NOTES I 7 5

0

24-25. eotenaS : see 4 B 73 n. ylfe : ylf "or alf meant a harmful spirit,

able to possess a man, and requiring to be driven out by exorcism. OlCneaS

were probably sea-monsters of some kind, like fifel, nicor, and fiyrs, cf. O.N.
orkn, a kind of seal. gigantas was doubtless a word introduced by

Christian missionaries to supplement the native English inventory of mythical
creatures.

26. &BS, 'for this.'

27. haergtraflim : hearg, O.N. horgr, is a heathen (Germanic) place of
worship, situated in the depths of a sacred wood or grove.

28. wigweorJJUIlga : lit. ' worship of idols ' ; "wig, ' idol, ' is also called
deofolgield. WOldum, * with prayers.'

29. gastbona, 'the spirit-slayers,' i.e. their god ; the word is used also of the
devil.

31. helle : a compendious term for heathen beliefs and practices.

33. ne . . . God is a mere repetition of the preceding sentence.

34. ne huru, ' nor even. '

35-40. wa . . . wilnian, ' woe to him who by cruel fate (lit. ' malice ')

must push down his soul into the embrace of fire, with no hope of relief or of

any change ; happy is he who after death may come to the Lord and claim (lit.

' desire') protection in the arms of the Father.'

50-52. This clause contains the curse, ' that the man who plundered the floor

(of the cavern) should be guilty of crime, confined in dungeons (lit. ' heathen

temples'), fastened in hell-bonds, punished by defilement.' The punishments

in hell of the wicked are frequently described with gusto by A.-S. poets;

hergum geheafterod is clearly the equivalent of hellbendum fsest in the eyes

of a Christian ecclesiastic at a time when heathen beliefs and even practices were

still prevalent.

53-56. Hrothgar is speaking about the object of Beowulf's visit to Heorot.

58. dseda getWSefan, 'deprive of action,' i.e. kill.

64-66. Beowulf is speaking to Hrothgar about Grendel, whom he has killed.

70-71. This is said of Beowulf on his death after the fight with the dragon.

19. EXODUS

MS. in the Bodleian, Junius xi. Text printed in Grein-Wiilcker, ii. p. 445 ff.
Edition, with introduction, bibliography, notes and glossary, by F. A.
Blackburn, 1907. See also Brandl, p. 1028, and S. Moore, "Sources of the
O.E. Exodus," Mod. Phil. vol. ix.

1. Compare the opening lines of Beowulf (4 A).

2. Moyses and secgan, 1. 7, are accus. with the infin., domas, wordriht,

bote and rsed being accus. governed by secgan ; transl. ' we have heard . . .
that Moses . . declared,' etc.

3. wera cneorissum, eadigra, lifigendra, hseleftum are equivalent terms

meaning ' men,' ' mankind.'

5. beallisifte refers specifically to the journey of the Israelites through the

wilderness, and generally to man's journey through the dangers of life.

7. gehyre Se fte wille was doubtless a customary formula at the beginning of a
lay ; cf. the concluding words hliste se Jye zville of the verse proem to King
Alfred's translation of the De Consolatione Philosophiae of Boethius.

8. J>OH.e, ' him,' sc. Moses.

16 ff. him, magorseswum and sunum all refer to the Israelites.

19. The spelling handlean for andlean occurs twice in Beo., alliterating in one

case with h, in the other with a vowel.

I 76 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

22. folcriht has here much the same meaning v&folc or hodscipe ; cf. eftelrihtes,
1. 211 and 14 I 555-

29. frod fsedera cyn, ' the old (or wise) race of patriarchs,' in apposition with

yldo beam.

30. he : God.

31. aldor: Moses.

32. on forftwegas, ' (ready) for the advance.'

33. Ungera is in W.S. ungeara, 'not long before.' witum refers to
the plagues of Egypt.

35. hryre is dat., 'through the fall.'

36. ' Their hall-joys ceased (lit. slept), robbed of treasure,' i.e. Pharaoh and
his lords ceased to distribute treasure in their halls.

37. haefde : the subject is God.

39. bana, ' the slayer,' may refer to Pharaoh, or perhaps to death personified.

40. The emendation of dryrmyde to drysmode is based on the word drysmaft,
which occurs in Beo. 1. 1375, where it seems to mean 'drizzle' ; see 14 C 236.
In the present passage drysmodo may be transl. ' was soaked.'

41 . dugoft : the Egyptian army.

43 ff. ' The hands of the laughter-smiths were manacled ; the people, the moving
host, started on (lit. 'greeted') the vouchsafed but hated journey.' The
'laughter-smiths' are perhaps the entertainers, gleemen, etc., of the pleasure-
loving Egyptians, now dispersed. If the MS. reading gretan be retained we
transl. ' permission (was) given to the people to start on the hated journey, the
host moved.'

45. feond : the devil.

46. hergas, ' the devil's army,' or we may take it as the plur. of fuzrg, hearg,
'temple.' heofon is apparently used to denote the forces of heaven,
or God's law. Some editors emend to heofung, ' lamentation.'

49 ff. ' So for this the Egyptian people, accursed of old, suffered duress for many
years, because they had intended, had the Lord allowed, to refuse for ever to
the kinsmen of Moses their long- felt desire for the dear journey (i.e. to the
promised laud)'; faesten properly means 'stronghold,' hence 'prison,'
' duress.'

53. onlangne has the same sense as andlangne, which would not alliterate.

54. fyrd : the Israelite army. from was prob. freoni originally, as in
1. 14.

55. msegburll, here ' army,' is properly ' the fortified place or city of the
kinsmen,' cf. 1. 352.

56. faestenna is required by the metre, the half-line being of the E-type ; see
Appendix, § 8.

57. The MS. reading leodweard is clearly a mistake for leodgeard, as Grein
suggested; the expression land ond leodgeard occurs in Genesis, 11. 229, 1773.

58. This line is identical with Beo. 1. 1410.

59. guftmyrce seems to mean ' hostile dwellers on the march or border.'

60. heora refers to guftmyrce.

61. mearchofu morheald, ' their habitations on the sloping moorland of the
marches.' The second half of this line is metrically faulty ; we might insert
ond before Moyses, which would make a B-type.

62. The MS. reading meoringa seems to be for an original meorringa, the
Northumbrian form of mearringa, corresponding to the W.S. interring,
'impediment,' 'obstacle.'

63. haeleft is plur. If the MS. reading tirfastne is kept, it will refer to

NOTES 177

Moses, and the subject of heht will be God. Reading tirfeBSte, accus. pi. m.,
we take Moses as the subj. of heht. The MS. reading hva niht may

be regarded as a compound word like seofon niht in 14 A 19, and fif nihfa, ib.

1.47-

65. bearhtme, ' with a mighty sound,' a metathesis- form of breahtme, connected
with brecan.

66. ^Ethanes byrig, 'the cities of Etham.'

67. msegnes maeste, 'with the greatest of their force,' i.e. with their very
great force, a repetition of SBlfaie.

68. genyddon, ' pressed on ' ; understand hie, as niedan is transitive.

69. Sigelwara, 'people of the sun,' i.e. Ethiopians.

71. hatum heofoncolum, '(burnt) by hot coals of heaven,' i.e. by the
fierce sun.

73. baslce : the pillar of cloud is vaguely conceived by the poet, who gives it
various names.

78. hate may be a noun here, as in Beo. 1. 2605 ; thus we may transl. ' it
(the cloud) absorbed the fiery flames (of the sun), bright with the heat.'
wafedon, 'gazed,' as at a marvel or spectacle, i.e. were amazed; wafung
is a spectacle or show.

79. gedrymost is from dream, ' noise of a multitude.' The MS. reading
dcegsccaldes makes no sense.

81. segle : the poet constantly varies his images when speaking of the pillar of
cloud. In 1. 85 it is called a tent.

82. SWa is here used like the relative pron. with the subjunctive in Latin ;
transl. 'such a sail that men knew not its ropes.'

84. ealle Ciaefte, 'with all their efforts.'

87. )>eoden : God, in apposition with he. holde, 'his faithful people.'

wic, ' encampment,' i.e. end of a day's journey.

95 ff. ' Each of which evenly shared the high service of the Holy Spirit,

(dividing) the journey of the bold ones by day and night.' The pillar of fire at

night and the pillar of cloud by day watched over the march of the Israelites.

103 f. fyrdgetrum repeats werod in 1. 100. forft . . . metan,

' they saw the guide of life (i.e. the pillar) measuring its way onward

through the air,' i.e. the cloud starting on its journey. The MS. reading lifweg,

' life- way,' hardly gives good sense.

106. flodwege, ' by the road which led to the sea.'

107 ff. ' Every evening the beacon in the heavens arose, another rare marvel,

after the sun, which had gone to its setting, and it shone (lit. to shine) with

flame over the men, a burning beam.'

109. Setlrade beheold is a parenthesis referring to the sun.

110. SCinan is complementary to astah in 1. 107.

113-115. SCeado . . . ahydan, ' the gloom grew less, the intense night-
shadows, the darkness, could not nearly hide (any one).' heolstor is
apparently nom. s. in apposition with nihtSCUWan. The verbs swiftrian
and swe<5rian are frequently confused by copyists ; see 1. 242 n.
heofoncandel, here used of the beam of light, is usually applied to the sun.
117 ff. ' Lest the terrible wilderness of the grey heathland might in the sea-
gales wrest away their lives with sudden clutch.'

118. hares hashes is Sievers's emendation of the MS. reading, which is
metrically defective.

121. baelegesan hweop, 'threatened with terrible flame.'
123. forbaernde is here subjunct., 'that it would burn.'

N

178 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

124. hyrde may mean either ' heard ' or ' encouraged ' (from heard],
126 ff. ' The shield-fighters saw the road straight before them ; the banner
(i.e. the pillar of fire), eager to advance, high above the hosts, helped the army
right up to the sea-fortress (i.e. the shore) at the land's end.'

130. wyrpton hie, 'recovered.'

131. Either the Israelites are called metej^egnas merely because they are
eating at the moment, or else metej>egnas refers to the commissariat officers.
133. flotan : another name, evidently complimentary, for the Israelites ; cj.
1. 223. Note the dat. (i.e. instrumental) husum used with braeddon, 'spread
their tents.' wic : see 1. 87 n.

135 ff. News comes of a threatened attack in the rear by the Egyptians.

136. Oht inlende : pursuit by the Egyptians. stodan, ' fell upon them.'

137. wrSBCmon, 'exile,' here used of the Israelites.

138. se fte refers to lastweard, him to wrsecmon.

140. wean is ace. s. and repeats ohtnied. witum fsest, ' bound up

in penalties,' i.e. criminal. waere, 'treaty,' 'covenant.'

gymdon I the Egyptians are the subject.

141. yldra, 'senior,' 'chief,' i.e. Pharaoh, who promised Joseph to settle his
father and brethren in Egypt; see Genesis xlv. 18-20.

142. yrfeweard: Pharaoh, lit. 'heir.'

143. aefter maftmum, ' of their property.' Pharaoh had profited by the famine
. to acquire the land of the people for himself; see Genesis xlvii. I3ff.

144. ealles : adv., 'entirely.' siftftan . . . forgefe (153), 'after

they, the Egyptian race, became angry on account of the opposition of one
man (Moses), and then they planned massacre against his kinsmen, prepared
a persecution and destroyed (lit. consumed) the treaty. At the hearts of the
men (Egyptians) were surges of battle, thoughts of violence ; they treacherously
(lit. with false pledges) intended to repay the gift of life with an act of crime, so
that the people of Moses would have paid with their blood for that day's deed,
if mighty God had but granted them (the Egyptians) success in their errand of
destruction.' The passage is not quite clear ; we have taken the Egyptians to
be the subject of woldon in 1. 150.

145. Grein's emendation aniuig for the meaningless antwig of the MS. does not
give correct metre.

146. heo : a non-W. S. form of At, hie.

148. hea^owylmas I violent emotions are frequently expressed by using
weallan, 'to boil,' 'well up,' or ivielm, 'boiling,' 'surging.'
150. feorhlean refers to the saving by Joseph of the lives of the Egyptians.
154. eorla : the Israelites.

157. oferholt, 'upper wood,' is not met with elsewhere; it probably means
the forest of spears rising above the Egyptian army ; but perhaps the original
word was eoferholt, 'boar-spear.'

158. This line in the MS. comes after 1. 160.

159. gllft hwearfode may mean 'battle returned,' or else 'the army
wheeled.'

161. After on hwsel some words have clearly been dropped out by the copyist ;

hw&l is perhaps an error for wcel.

162 ff. For these accompaniments of battle cf. Beo. 11. 3024-3027 ; and 16

106 n.

164. WOnn may be either the adj. meaning 'dark,' or else the past indie, of

winnan^ ' to contend,' ' quarrel ' ; if it is the former, we must supply hreop

with waelceasega.

NOTES 179

166. beodan is a ' back-vowel umlaut ' form of bidon, ' waited for.'

167. fyl : a variant of w fd, 'the dead.'

168. mearcweardas, 'keepers of the marches,' i.e. wild beasts or evil beings
inhabiting the wilderness.

169. fleah, . . . gast, 'doomed souls were flitting,' i.e. ghostly apparitions
were seen at night. By these touches of the supernatural the poet emphasizes
the horror of the situation for the Israelites.

170. J?6gnas : the Egyptian captains.

171. mseton milpaftas, * measured the mile-paths,' i.e. marched ; cf. 20
I24n. bogum, ' legs.'

172. segncyning : the Egyptian king. wift foran, ' in front of,' is

a compound preposition with separable elements like be foran, be tweonum^ etc.
176. Waelhlencan : the prefix wcel- here has the meaning ' battle ' rather
than ' corpse ' ; but the first element of a compound noun has often no mean-
ing, being prefixed merely in order to alliterate.

178. freond : the Israelites ; this is a parenthesis inserted in the description of
the Egyptian king's activities. on takes a strong stress here ; cf. 14
261 n.

179. landmanna : the Egyptians.

180. hine : the Egyptian king. The MS. reading wagon must have
an object, and is therefore emended to WSBIOIl.

181. har, 'whitish-grey,' is regularly used of a wolf; the 'sword-wolves' are
the Egyptians. gretton, * welcomed.'

183. The first half-line is metrically defective, as the first e of alesen is short

and cannot by itself take a strong stress as required in this type of half- line ; cf.

11. 189, 197, 200, etc., also 14 425 n. ; see Appendix, § 9.

186. This line may be rendered 'with the hereditary courage of their noble

line.'

190. inge has no sense unless we regard it as Kentish for iunge or giungey

'young'; for the alliteration cf. 1. 339. Sievers attributes this alliteration to

Kentish influence.

192. to hwaes, ' to what quarter.'

193. geatwe bseron : cf. \. 59 and note.

194. The word eorp occurs in 22 57 with the meaning 'dark,' 'brown';
it here refers to the swarthy hue of the Egyptians. ecan, ' reinforce-
ments,' is probably accus. in apposition to werod ; it may however be dat.
plur., which would give it the meaning of ' with reinforcements.'

197- After mSBgenheapum we must understand a word meaning 'come,'
'advance.'

199. broftorgyld is equivalent to broftra gyld, ( in compensation for their (slain)
brethren.'

200. wicum, * the camp ' (of the Israelites).

201. egesan stodon: cf. 1. 136.

203. flugon . . . Spel, 'the terrible tidings flew along.'

204. Werud : the Israelites. wlance : the Egyptians.

206, 207. )>3et . • . tosomne, ' so that the foemen could not see among them-
selves any longer,' i.e. they were covered with a mist. sift W36S
gedssled, 'their course was interrupted.'

208 ff. ' Compelled to march, they (the Israelites) spent the period of night,
though foes lurked on every side, either the (hostile) force or the sea.' It
looks as if the poet had intended to provide an object for hSBfde, but began the
sentence afresh with nahton.

I So BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

211. etJelrihteS hardly differs in meaning from eftles ; cf. folcriht, \. 22 n.

216. eorlas and folc are the objects of somnigean.

217. frecan is forfrecum, governed by bebead.

218. hycgan on ellen : cf. 5 i2n.

219. beacniim, ' signals,' i.e. trumpet-calls.

222, 223. We should expect beorgum, ' hills,' rather than burgUJH.

brudon feldhusum, ' struck their tents '; cf. ii. 132, 133. flotan : the

Hebrews ; cf. 1. 133.

227-229, ' In each one (of the tribes) companies (cista) were gathered under

their shields, fifty in number, of the flower (dugllfte) of the people, of noble race.'

230. CllfteS, 'familiar,' 'common.'

231, 232. The gen. plurals depend on hund.

233 ff. ' The less strong ones the leaders of the host did not admit (lit.
'welcome') into the number of warriors, those who on account of their
youth,' etc.
237. feond is gen. s.

239. lasrig: see 16 284 n. SWOl, 'burning heat.' Grein suggested
spor, ' trace,' for the unintelligible siuor of the MS.

240. A wound is called gylpplega gares, 'glorious sport of the spear.'

241. The eo of onfteon must be read as a dissyl. on account of the metre
(A-type) ; see Appendix, § 7.

242. The MS. reading swi&rade, ' grew strong,' makes translation difficult.
Reading SWeftrade we transl. 'if in the companies their strength had failed, so
they chose the attacking force for stature, (considering) how among the people
courage might render honourable service.' The poet means that the senior
officers picked out strong, seasoned men to carry out the attack, not merely
high-spirited youngsters who lacked training. For the confusion between
s^vl(5rian and swe<5rian cf. 1. 1 1 3 n.

248. forftwegas is the older North, genitive s. ; cf. 4 A 63 n. up

gerad, 'swung' or 'waved on high.'

250. siftboda : the pillar of cloud.

251. lyftedoras brsec, 'broke its air- barriers,' i.e. should begin to move.
We should have expected the subjunct. brace after hwonne in a dependent
question.

252. Mldecalla, ' battle-shouter,' herald.

255. modiges : sc. Moses.

265. The MS. reading cegnian does not occur elsewhere ; ognian also is not
elsewhere found, but would be a normal derivative of oga, ' terror.'

266. ne Willaft, ' do not,' perhaps an imitation of the Latin nolite.

deade is a stronger word than fsege ; it is used proleptically and means ' as

good as dead,' 'soon to die.'

269. OH is for an, ann, 'grant,' 'give.'

271. Supply ic with bidde.

278. to hardly seems needed, either by the metre or by the sense.

279. The indef. article is in verse often rendered by sum with gen. plur. ;

<f> 1- 357-

280. sloh, 'have struck.' Moses smites the water with a branch as he speaks,
and the waters recede, leaving a dry road.

287. fage feldas, 'the variegated (sea) floor.' forft heonon usually
means 'henceforth,' but must here be transl. 'heretofore.' The original sense
is ' looking either forward or backward over a period of time.'

288. The MS. reading in ece is metrically inadequate.

NOTES I 8 I

289. S3elde saegrundas is in apposition to feldas ; transl. ' the sea bottom
(hitherto) confined.' Cosijn's emendation sund wind for sutSwind provides an
obj. (sund) for fornam ; transl. ' the wind, the blast of the sea-road, removed
the sea.'

291. The MS. reading sand sacir span is clearly wrong. One suggested
emendation is to read spaw for span, on the analogy of 1. 365, and to transl.
'the sea-current spewed up the sand.' But this would be faulty metre (D-type),
as -cir ( = cierr) is not a weak-stress syll. The reading in the text, sandsse
aspranc, would mean ' the sandy sea has sprung apart.' The letter a when
carelessly written resembles ci, while the letters s, p, w, r and f are frequently
confused by copyists. The c=gzA. the end of aspranc might easily be omitted
owing to the c in ic.

293. eorlas is nom. of address. ofest is Selost occurs in Beo. 1. 256.

294. weorften, ' get away.'

296. in randgebeorh, 'into a shield of defence,' i.e. into a wall resembling
the serried ranks of shields in the wighaga or ' shield-formation.'
299, 300. Werod . . . msegen: these words occur also in 11. 100, 101.
The use of modigra in an E-type of half-line, which requires a long *', is a
metrical licence, not found in the oldest verse.

307. The MS. reading hige gehyrdon is metrically faulty ; moreover, a subject is
needed for the verb, so that we prefer to read hi gehyrdon. gehyrdon is for
gehyrwdon, from gehyrwan, ' to'despise,' W.S. gehierivan.

308. laeste near, ' drew nearer,' i.e. to the sea.
310. feorfte : Judah was the fourth son of Jacob.

313. The MS. reading an onorette is evidently an error ; transl. ' hastened alone
along the unfamiliar road.'

314. for, 'in front of.'

322. drihtfolca msest is an expansion of hie, the subject of hsefdon in 1. 319.
323 f. be }>am . . . J>olian, ' thereby the leaders of the army (showed that they)
would not, as long as life endured, suffer humiliation long.' Or herewisan
may refer to the lion, and then we transl. ' with such a leader they would
not,' etc.

327. hsegSteald : sing, used for plur., to fit the metre.

328. WSBlslihtes is gen. limiting modige, 'gallant in the deadly clash (of
weapons).'

333. The occurrence of the word SSBWicingaS makes us pause before admitting,

with most scholars, an early date for the poem. The earliest recorded instance

of wiring, 'pirate,' is in the A.-S. Chron., anno 879, where Danish raids are

mentioned.

335, 336. he ... aswefede, ' he (Reuben) had by his sins lessened (lit. ' put

to sleep,' 'lulled') his authority.' siftor, 'later,' i.e. not among the first.

337. leofes: Moses.

339. For the alliteration see 1. 190 n.

342. )>ridde ]?eodmaegen refers to the sons of Simeon and is the subject of

on^rang.

344. The MS. reading deawig sceaftiim makes poor sense ; for the emendation

cf. deafrsperu, 22 68.

346. meretorht occurs also in Boethius, Metra xiii. 1. 61.

349. >y, 'thereby.'

350. The MS. reading wolcnum does not make much sense.

352. maegburga riht means the traditional order of precedence of the tribes to
which they had a ' right.'

I 82 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

353. eorla JBftelo, ' the lineage (or rank) of the warriors,' is practically the same

as maegburga riht.

354. leodfruma, i.e. Abraham, who is called heahfsedera sum in i. 357.

358. The MS. reading onriht is not found elsewhere, nor is anriht, but the

latter word might well exist, with the meaning ' possessing alone the right,'

i.e. the privileged one of God.

359 ff. ' So the old ones relate in their wisdom, they who have learned most

about the tribes, of the origin of (men's) lives, of the descent of each.'

After 1. 361 comes, without transition of any sort, a passage of 84 lines, be-

ginning with an account of Noah and the Flood, and continuing with the story

of Abraham's attempted sacrifice of Isaac, cut short by Divine intervention.

This passage, which we omit, is usually regarded as an interpolation to fill up a

lost part of the text of the poem. The story of the passage of the Red Sea is

resumed in line 362.

362. folc \ the Egyptians, who on attempting to cross the Red Sea are over-

whelmed by the collapse of the piled-up 'sea-walls.'

370. gnomra is comparative ; ' their boastfulness became sadder.'

371. atol yfta gewealc : cf. atol yfta geswing, Beo. 1. 848.
375. Streamas Stodon, ' the seas reared up.'

378. flod blod gewod : an instance of ' internal rhyme,' which is occasionally
found in O.E. verse ; transl. ' blood spread through the waters.5

381. The MS. reading eyre makes no sense.

382. wigbord scinon : the numerous short parentheses are a feature of this
poem.

385. The MS. reading fortSganges nep makes no sense. £sne, ' retainer,'
' serving man,' is in later A.-S. verse used for wer, * man ' ; cf. Daniel 1. 243.
383 ff. Again the MS. reading needs emendation, as barenodon has no meaning.
Transl. ' the sands prepared themselves for the appointed destiny, when the
flood of waters, the cold sea with its salt waves, now accustomed to its changed
course (seflastum), the stript messenger of fate (nacud nydboda), the hostile
onward-moving spirit, which threatened the foe, should come back to its eternal
foundations.' A messenger is stripped for rapid running.

399. weallfSBSten : the wall of waters.

400. meretorras further varies the simile.

402. A word has fallen out immediately before or after werbeamas, as the
metre shows. The sea is piled up like a wall on either side of the passage of the
Hebrews, as if held back by barriers. These barriers give way when struck by
the Almighty. Wer\$> the Mod. English 'weir.' wlance . . • mod,
' the proud people (the Egyptians) could not restrain the fury of the flood, nor
could the embrace of helpers (restrain it), but with a dreadful roar it injured many.'

403. The MS. reading pa(5 needs emendation.

404. he refers to merestream.

406. To be metrically correct the first half-line requires teak instead of ateah
(A-type).

407. weollon W88lbenna, ' the wounds gushed,' i.e. they bled. The
MS. reading witrod yields no meaning ; wigrod, ' battle-pole,' is the pole or mast,
the seglrod of 1. 83, which, hitherto invisible behind the cloud or ' sail,' as the
poet calls it, now descends from heaven with terrific force and breaks down the

sea-wall (flodwearde, l. 409).

409. The epithet famigbosma, 'foam -fronted,' describes the foaming surge
caused by the fall of the wigrod.

410. aide mece, ' (as) with an old (i.e. good) sword.'

NOTES I 8 3

414. The MS. reading here is clearly wrong, as mcdwsega msest requires a

verb. The letters h and b, r and p could easily have been confused by the

careless copyist; see 1. 291 n. Transl. 'when the greatest of angry waves

savagely seized them by the heels.'

416. The MS. reading &a }>e gedrecte needs emendation, for the sake of both

sense and metre.

420. heonifseftmum, ' by the embrace of the sword,3 a picturesque way of saying

' by the sword ' ; cf. hiorodryiuum^ 4 F 274.

424. ungmndes, * that which has no bottom,' an immeasurable amount or
number.

425. J>sette, * so that (he),' ' who ' ; perhaps the original reading was J>cet he.

429. S6 . . . ahte, ' in its successful course,' referring to meredeafr

430. Me • • . WUnnon : this phrase occurs in Beo. ; see 18 25.

434. After this line we omit a passage of 33 lines, which begins by stating that
Moses gave the Commandments to the Israelites and that we find these written
in books. Then come some irrelevant lines on the fate of the wicked and the
good. The whole passage looks like an interpolation from some other poem to
supply the place of a lost passage of our poem ; cf. \. 359 n.

440. msegenwisa : God.
444. }?aet, 'that which.'

448. >set, '(namely) that.'

449. be SSem tweomim is a phrase which occurs four times in Beowulf, where
it means ' by the two seas,' i.e. where the North Sea and the Baltic meet. In
the present poem it is possible that the words refer to the Red Sea and
the Mediterranean, but they may be used in a general sense, 'in the world.'
452 ff. SCgnaS . . . SWeg, ' the standards reared up (or halted) at the beautiful
sound.'

455. hyld, 'grace,' ' protection,' gives better sense than kild, 'battle.'

457. This and the next two lines are examples of the ' extended ' type of metre

which occasionally occurs ; cf. 21 1-3 n., and see Appendix, § 10.

463. sang is a second obj. of hofon. OH oftnun, ' on the other side,'

' opposite.'

466 ff. ' Then might easily be seen on the sea-shore African women adorned with

gold, with necklaces, who raised their hands (in welcome) ; they were glad,

they saw a change for the better (bote) ; they gave heed to the booty of war,

their captivity was loosed ; they began to deal out on the shore the spoil of the

sea,' etc.

471. Segmim, ' by standards,' among the companies.

473. heom . . . SCCOde, ' rightly to them fell ' ; this is Grein's emendation.

We might however, retaining heo (n.pl. —hie] and reading sceodon (from scadan),

transl. ' they rightly divided the gold and the fine tissues.'

475. WCrigend : either ' the defenders' or ' the wearers,' i.e. the Egyptians.

20. CYNEWULF

A. The MS. of Crist is contained in the Exeter Book, fols. 8a-32b. Editions.

The latest are (i) by I. Gollancz (with translation), 1892; (2) by A. S. Cook,
with introduction, notes and glossary, 1900. The text is printed in Grein-

Wulcker, iii. p. I. For Cynewulf and his poetry see Cook's edition; also
Brandl, pp. 1040-1044.

3. ssr is a prep, governing eallum ]?rymmum.

I 84 BIBLICAL AND CHRISTIAN

13. geworden refers to the indeclinable rel. pronoun )>e, which here has a

plural meaning.

17. a ... feore, 'for ever and ever' ; this phrase occurs also in Beo. 1. 932.

43. wulf : i.e. the spirit of evil, the devil.

44. deorc deaftscua occurs in Beo. \. 160.

48. ofer . . . lust, ' against our desire ' ; nioda is superfluous, so far as the

sense is concerned.

51. The emendation wittes gives much better sense than the MS. reading

•wites ; cf. gastbona^ Beo. 1. 177.

63. selda is Northumbrian for W. S. ielda.

66. >aet, 'when.'

67. Cosijn supplies us after we as obj. of hlodlin.

70. goldhord is used twice in the Stickling Homilies in reference to Christ.
72. The personal note here should be noticed, immediately preceding as it does
the acrostic containing the author's name.
75- )>e, ' for that,' ' because,' is instrumental, and introduces a clause explaining

fty rej>ran. >aet, ' what.'

80. The name of the rune in this line is cen, which here may stand for cene, ' bold.'
83. The name of the first rune in this line v$>yr; its meaning here, if it has
a meaning, has been variously assigned, e.g. yrmpu, ' misery,' or yfel> ' wicked-
ness.' The second rune has no ambiguity. Perhaps both of these runes are to
be left untranslated.

86. The subject of wille is God understood.

87. This rune has two values, either wen or wynn ; of these the latter is here
used.

88. The name of this rune is ur, which means ' aurochs,' a species of bison
or wild ox now extinct. This meaning, however, does not apply here. The
adj. urig, 'dewy,' 'wet,' occurring in the compounds urigfejyra^ uriglast,
seems to point to the existence in the oldest language of another ur meaning
* moisture.' We may thus, reading lire (d.s.), transl. ' for a long time life's joys,
(men's) possessions, were cut off by the waters, the floods.' This sentence seems
to have no connexion with those that precede and succeed it.

89. lifwynna dsel : this use of d<zl with the g. s. or pi. of a noun is a common
device for filling out an E-type of half-line.

90. There is no doubt here about feoh being both the name and the meaning of
the rune.

96. g3Bsta gifrast : cf. 4 D 183.

B. The MS. of Elene is in the Vercelli Codex, fols. 121-130. Editions.

The most recent are : (i) by C. Kent, 1889 ; (2) by J. Zupitza, 1899.
The text is printed in Grein-Wiilcker, ii. p. 126.

98 ff. ' Thus I, now old and ready to depart through the sinful house, have
been skilled in words and have culled (i.e. read) them in wonderful ways, have
at times meditated and tensely strained my thoughts at night. I had no clear
knowledge of right thinking until learning with its glorious power revealed to my
mind wider thoughts.' This looks like an autobiographical note by Cynewulf.
It is not clear what faecne hus refers to ; perhaps the meaning is
merely 'this habitation of sin,' i.e. the world.

99. The MS. reading wordcraft w&f is metrically defective ; we should also
expect the last word of the half-line to rhyme with laes.

100. The MS. reading reodode makes no sense ; the letters r and n are
occasionally confused by copyists. Neodode is the Northumbrian form of
neadode — ^N.^). niedde.

NOTES 185

102. In the first half-line there has clearly been an omission in the MS., the
metre being defective and rhyme absent.

103. The earlier form of miht was mceht or meaht, rhyming with j>eaht.

104. fah, 'sin-stained.'

107. The subject of onlag and the following verbs is Msegencyning.

Jmrll leolltne had is usually translated 'by my glorious profession,' i.e. that
of a monk or priest. The phrase, however, may merely mean 'gloriously.'

108. If gamelum is dat. s. agreeing with me the inference is possible that
Cynewulf became a monk in his old age. But gamelum may be dat. pi. , ' for
the comfort of the old ones,' i.e. of the older monks.

110. tidum gerymde, 'in due time (or, from time to time) expanded.'

111. bancofan onband, 'unbound my body,' i.e. freed it from ill-health or
the infirmity of age ; this idea is repeated in leoftucraeft onleac.

113. willlim is here, like Instum, used as an adv., ' gladly.' tieowCS

and beam refer to the buried Cross, which according to the legend was found
by St. Helena. Cynewulf says he had often meditated on this theme before

putting his thoughts into words (onwrigen, on gewritum cyftan). The

Dream of the Cross may have been written by him.

118 ff. This rune passage is generally regarded as a continuation of the poet's
account of himself, and is taken to mean that he was a retainer of some king or
nobleman before he became a monk. But there may be no special reference ;
the poet may merely have wished to write some lines, working in the runes of
his name and letting his fancy stray in the vein of sad regret so common in A.-S.
poetry.

119. cen dnisende, ' (like) a drooping pine-torch.'

121. sepplede, 'russet,' 'dull yellow.' The word occurs in Phoenix, 1. 506, and
Juliana, 1. 688. In Beo. 1. 2165 appelfealuwe, 'russet-brown,' is used of a
horse. yr is here of doubtful meaning ; it may stand for yrming, ' poor

wretch.' But perhaps it has no meaning here, merely standing for the letter y.

123. nine, 'secret thoughts,' with a play on the rune-letter called nyd.

124. milpaftas IHcBt: cf. Beo. 1. 514 maton merestrata \ see 14 A 16, and
19 171 n.

125. swiftrian, 'to grow stronger,' and sweftrian, 'to grow weaker,'
'slacken,' are often confused by copyists; cf. 19 H3n. wyn suits the
sense here better than wen.

126. gecyrred, 'changed.'

127. The meaning of the rune here, the name of which is ur, is doubtful ; see
1. 88 n. It is just possible that in the present passage the runes cen, yr, and ur
may have no meaning, having been inserted merely to preserve the alliteration.
131. landes fraetwe, ' the beauties of the land,' i.e. the face of the land, with
its mountains, rivers, etc., and men's works.

132-137. With this passage cf. the opening lines of the Riddles, Nos. I and 3 ;

see 22 A and B.

133. he : the wind.

135. gewyrfteft is a late W.S. form of geweorftaft.

1 86 MISCELLANEOUS

V. MISCELLANEOUS

21. GNOMIC AND DIDACTIC

A. MS. in the British Museum, Cott. Tib. B I. Text in Grein-Wulcker,
i. pp. 338-341. Edition by Blanche C. Williams, Gnomic Poetry in
Anglo-Saxon, 1914.

1-3. ceastra . . . geweorc : cf. 6 86, 87. The first three lines and

11. 42 ff. are written in the ' extended ' metre which is occasionally met with as
a variation of the ordinary two-stress type of half-line ; see 19 457 n.
and Appendix, § 10. The word sceal in this poem denotes function or habit
rather than necessity or compulsion. Thus it is used with God in 1. 35.

10. Sweet's emendation SWUtolost is adopted in place of the MS. reading
swicolost.

12. feala is a Northumbrian form of fela. gebideft modified by aer
seems to mean ' will have experienced.'

14, 15. For this sentiment cf. 4 A 20 ff.

19. for earm anhaga, EttmUller's emendation, cf. Beo, 1. 2368.

20. til, ' the good man. '

21. domes is partitive gen.

42. JjyiS : a water-monster, like Grendel in Beo. 1. 426.

43-45. ides . . . geblCge : this passage is not clear, as its meaning depends

on the interpretation of on folce gej>60n. We may transl. ' a woman, if she

cares not for her reputation among the people (i.e. for public opinion), seeks out

her friend (s) secretly, to sell herself for rings.'

46, 47. ' The atmosphere and ocean surround every land ; mountain-streams

flow.'

50. With sceal supply winnan or sacan.

56. fSBgere, * fittingly ' or ' in full.'

59. for, ' before.'

B. MS. in Exeter Book, fols. 78-80. Text printed in Grein-Wulcker,
iii. p. 140.

68. geongra is for gengra, g.pl. of genge, * prevalent,' 'usual.'

73. The second syll. of onfon is to be pronounced as a dissyl., as the half-line
is an A-type ; cf. onlihft, 1. 96, and onfehfS^ 1. 100.

74. >S6S, ' so ' ; cf. \. 83.

77. Argifa: God. ealles, 'entirely.'

79. wis refers to God. on WOldcwidum is equivalent to wordcwida.

84 ff. ' No man in this world through wisdom advances so strongly into power
over the people that the Guardian of peoples in His holy favour sends him wise
counsels and powers, and entrusts them to his sole keeping, lest he from vain-
glory, endowed with splendid gifts, headstrong of temper, may leave moderation
and despise the more lowly ones.'

96. onlihft : see 1. 73 n.
100. onfehft : see l. 73 n.
123. arum, 'with oars.'

137. )>3et . . . SCeal, ' what he is obliged to suffer. '

138. domas COn : like the Man of Law of the Prologue of the Canterbury Tales.
141. beorhyrde god means 'economical in pouring out beer,' and therefore a
valuable servant. For this use of hyrde cf. Father's Advice, \. 221.

147. to horse hwJBt, 'a keen horseman.'

NOTES 187

148. ' Some are jugglers, have clever tricks, the gift of entertainment before men.'

160. beorhte, 'clear.'

161. leojmfaest, ' firm of joint,' is a curious epithet for a scholar, unless it
means that he is cramped with study.

165. ealle, 'all gifts.'

166. Ipy . . . SCeftfte occurs also in Crist 1. 684.

170. he: God.

177. )>3eS, 'for that.'

0. MS. in the Exeter Book, fols. 8oa, 8ib. Text printed in Grein-

Wtilcker, i. 353.

183. ' Do ever what is good, and thy deserts will be good.' The MS. reading
^ewyrhtu must be an error.

184. bift, 'will be.'

185. feond . . . gewyrhta, ' the enemy (i.e. the devil) is the worker of harm
to the other ' (i.e. to the bad man).

186. wene is imperat. of wenian, 'accustom,' 'train.'

187. ' Do this strenuously ' ; efh is imperat.

188. freo, 'love.'

191. Iset: supply beon.

193. to here takes a strong stress, though it is used as a preposition with gode.

This is sufficient to stamp the poem as of late date.

197. mSBge . . . gej^afa, 'do not permit outrage upon a kinsman.'

198. gieldeft is future.

202, 203. * Do not ever have dealings with an inferior in any deliberation.'
205. sy . . . msege, * be the consequences to the kingdom what they may.'
215. The metre requires the contracted form gefste ; see Appendix, § 8.

219. The i of laftlicie must be regarded here as long, if the metre is not to be
defective ; cf. 19 300 n. and 22 155 n.

220. geotende gielp, 'reputation draining away.' gledda, 'in
speeches ' ; for gied see 14 492 n.

221. hyrde, 'sparing'; cf. 1. 141.

227. a ... gedasled, ' thou shalt ever have thy share,' i.e. be well endowed.

229. Wift, 'against it.'

230. god is the obj. of feorma.

233 ff. ' Seldom is the wise man's joy without care, seldom does the fool in his
revelry trouble about his future, unless his thoughts are occupied with a feud.'
243. to Sige, ' for thy triumph.'

249 ff. ' They care not at all whether they do wrong against the Lord's com-
mandment.'

251. SUSles, 'with torment.'
261. Supply he bi&.

263. heah, 'deep.' gnind, 'the abyss.'

264 f. Man understood is the subject of wamaft J with sceal supply beon.
268. seldu is the Anglian form for W.S. ieldu.
270. ' Nor let thyself in mind (incline) towards treachery to a man.'

22. RIDDLES1

MS. in the Exeter Book, fols. ioia-ii5a, I22b-I23a, I24b. Text

printed in Grein-Wlilcker, iii. (first part) pp. 183-238. Editions. The

1 Our numbering of the Riddles is in each case one behind that usually
employed, as we do not include the lyric poem Wolf and Eadwacer; see 10,
introd. note.

1 88 MISCELLANEOUS

latest are (i) by F. Tupper, 1910; and (2) by A. J. Wyatt, 1912. See also
Brandl, pp. 969-97 3.

A. A thunderstorm.

1. This line is almost identical with Crist t 1. 241 ; cf. also ib. 11. 219-221.

2. hwa . . . wraBCe, ' who drove me on my journey,' i.e. set me in motion.
Or, taking WTSBCe for wrece, pres. subjunct., we transl. 'drives.'

4. The MS. reading iur<zce makes no sense.

9. fylle, ' fell,' ' blow down.'

10. The MS. reading holme is obviously an error for helme, 'tree-top.'

11. The MS. reading wrecan makes no sense.

12-14. ' I have on my back that (i.e. the earth) which once concealed the
forms of earth-dwellers, flesh and spirit together in the sand.'

B. A hurricane at sea. This poem is a more ambitious treatment of the theme
of the preceding riddle. In reading it we are reminded of the vigorous
descriptions in Exodus.

18. bearin, ' bosom of the earth,' i.e. underground.

18-20. Olid . . . enge, ' and brings me to a standstill, represses my violence
in darkness, my fury in confinement.' It used to be believed that storms were
due to the release of air compressed in subterranean caverns, where it caused
earthquakes; cf. 1. 12.

22. aglace, 'horrible position.'

23. hornsalu : the roof-tree of a hall was finished off with a peak or horn at
each end; cf. hornreced^ Beo. 1. 704, and horngeapy ' high and horn-tipped,'
ib. 1. 82.

25. The meaning of stiwitum is uncertain ; it seems to be the same word as

stigwitum, Genesis 1. 2079, where the meaning is also doubtful. It may mean

' stewards,' ' officials.'

28. 86, ' he who,' i.e. God. on governs mec.

The MS. reading wrcede would mean ' band,' ' fillet ' rather than ' bond ' ;

WT3B^6 means ' with wrath.'

30. bende and clomme seem to be dative, an unusual construction.

31. )>aes, 'of him.'

34. flintgrsegne flod, ' the surf on the grey flint-beach.'
36. dun, ' mountain,' i.e. billow.

39. Wada, ' of the waters.' The MS. reading ivudu is clearly wrong ; in O. E.
MSS. an unfinished a looks like a u.

42. hopgehnastes, ' the surge of waters in the clefts.' The word hop, ' narrow
creek,' < cove,' occurs in fenhopu, Beo. 1. 764. It is found in modern place-
names, e.g. Stanhope, Glossop, etc. heah gearing, ' the towering mass.'

45. gaesta here, as in other instances, may represent either W.S. giest,
'stranger,' 'guest,' or gast, 'soul,' 'spirit'; cf. 18 14 n.

46. he : sc. ceol. rice birofen, ' robbed of control,' i.e. at the mercy
of the elements.

47. feore bifbhten, 'mortally (lit. vitally) assailed.'

49. For jeldum, which does not alliterate, Ettmuller suggested h<zle<5um.
48-50. ]>3Br . . . Stiftweg, * thereupon a horrible plight is revealed to men,
whom (i.e. whose cries) I, strong in my unswerving course, shall hear.' There
is no finer descriptive passage than this in A.-S. poetry. As in the case of
the Wanderer and the Seafarer, we can hardly doubt that the writer is describing
what he has himself seen.

51-54. The commotion of the elements now assumes the form of a submarine
earthquake, due to the escaping air ; see 11. 18-20 n. 51. }>set

NOTES 189

i.e. the sea. The alliteration of the second strong stress (rideS) of the second

half-line is irregular ; see Appendix, § 3.

52. WSegfatll, 'vessel of the waves,' i.e. the sea, an idea repeated by full in

the next line.

54 ff. S6 bift, etc. : a thunderstorm on land is now described.

55. Ofer burglim has here a general meaning, ' in the world' ; cf. 1. 66 infra,

56, 57. J?onne . . . ecge, ' when one sharp cloud edge meets another.' SC60
seems to be the same as the O.S. skio, O.N. sky, ' cloud.'

58. The MS. reading siv<eta<5 makes no sense.

60. The MS. reading dreontum is unintelligible ; dreorglim is for dreorigum,
d.pl. of dreorig, ' sad.' The letters rand n are confused by copyists, cf. \. 226 n.,
and an unfinished g looks like a /.

62, 63. ' Emits a black moisture from their bosom, a liquid from their interior,'
referring to the dark sheet of rain visible under the approaching thunder-clouds,
a familiar sight, especially at sea. sendaft merely repeats feallan

Isetaft.

63. The storm is next likened to an advancing troop of cavalry armed with spears.
66, 67. )>OIlIie . . . WSepnum, ' when the moving phantom strikes men pale
(with fear), with sharp weapons.' The singular SCOtaft is required both by
metre and grammar. 66. brogan is n.pl. in apposition with egsa.

70. The MS. reading of the first half-line is metrically weak ; we might perhaps
read on geryhtutn ryne, ' with straight course. '

72. Strictly speaking, farende flan is metrically incorrect, as the first strong
stress should be borne by a long syll. (E-type) ; the metre would be improved by
reading ferende.

73. rynegiestes W3Bpen, 'the weapon of the hastening visitant,' i.e. the
lightning flash.

78-81. £oime . . . frean : after its career of destruction the tempest returns

to its confinement under the earth.

80. }>3et . . . SCeal refers to the earth.

82-87. These lines summarize the preceding descriptions.

84. hean is either nom.s., meaning 'humble,' or acc.pl. weak of heah, 'deep,'

agreeing with y]?a.

89. beom is the earlier form of beo ; the -m corresponds to -mi of certain

Greek verbs ; cf. also the Latin sum.

C. The skin of an animal, used as rope, wine-bottle, rug or boot, etc.
91. gsest bere, 'am alive.'

93. Wealas here and Wala in 1. 97 are serfs of Welsh race.

95, 96. hwilum . . • fotum may refer to fur slippers or else a rug.

97. Cf. Riddle, no. 21 1. 5 wegcft nice ond fiyft. The Welshwoman seems to
be dressing the skin to make it soft.

98. The phrase dol druncmennen and the epithet hygegalan in 1. 101 seem
to indicate a personal dislike of Welshwomen on the part of the writer, doubtless
an ecclesiastic. It is not clear what the object is that the Welshwoman is busied
with, perhaps fur gloves are meant, or a muff.

100-102. me . . . SWeartne, ' the hand of the wanton creature nestles in my
bosom, often turns and passes through my dark interior ' (lit. through me dark).
The last words may, however, mean { passes over my dark surface.'
103. ]?e ic, ' I who. ' reafige, ' demolish ' by burrowing.

D. A badger.

107. beadowsepen refers to the formidable teeth of the badger.
' stand erect.'

1 90 MISCELLANEOUS

108, SWylce sue, 'as well as'; sue is here the non-W.S. form of W.S.
sw(E — swa.

109. Ordum, 'with my claws.'

114. hwonne, 'until.'

115. him, 'to them,' i.e. my young ones.

118. ealles, 'after all.'

119. hi ... breost, ' they (the young ones) do not quit (lit. do not make bare)
my breast.' The MS. reading hine bera(5 is metrically defective, and moreover
gives no sense.

120. on geruman, 'in my dwelling.' ne ic . . . teale, 'I do not

consider that advisable,' cf. pat reed talaft, Beo. 1. 2027 ; teale is prob. the
Mercian form of W.S. talie.

122. The badger makes its burrow on the side of a hill-top, with various
openings ; cf. also 1. 125.

123. freora, ' my dear ones.'

125. dune is gen.s.

126. swsese ond gesibbe qualify maegburge.

127. WSelhwelpes : the pursuing dog, called ni$SCeaJ>a in the next line.

Wiht, 'at all.'
129. ne toS8BleJ> him, 'he will not lack,' i.e. I shall offer him.

132. )>urh haest, 'violently.' hlino is the early form of the ist pers.
s. pres. indie. llildepillim : as pil means a 'sharp stake' or 'spike,'
some editors think the quills of the porcupine are here meant. But the word
describes equally well the badger's sharp teeth.

133. laftgewinnum, ' foes,' is gov. by hrinp.

E. The month of December, according to Dietrich. This is, he says, one of a
number of riddles, current in many countries, relating to divisions of time. The
sixty horsemen are the days and the nights ; the eleven men are the church
festivals, of which the four Sundays are the white horses (sceamas). Chariots
and horses are usually referred to in this class of riddle.

146. SWa, 'in such a manner that.'

147. fset is a contraction of fated.
149. drefde, ' stirred up ' with oars.

153. o>erne : sc. sta<s.

F. A cart-wheel.

155. The second i of missenllCC must here be regarded as long ; see 19

300 n.

160. fet : the axle of the wheel.

163. mut5 : the nave.

164. folcscipe dreogeft, 'performs a social service.'

165. in is an adv. and has a strong stress (D-type).

G. A mail-shirt made of steel links.

171. mec beworhtne : supply Icon.
174. >urh, 'with.'

176. am I the am was the stick used by the weaver to knock the weft-
threads together.

177. wyrda crseftum, ' with their inborn skill,' lit. 'with the skill of (i.e. due
to) fate.' Sweet in his A.-S. deader emends ivyrdi-, the reading of the Leiden
MS., to wyndi-, and reads ivyndicrceftum, which he translates ' art of embroidery.'
169 a ff. Note that u is used for wt and ae or a for a short e. As the Leiden
MS. of this riddle is in places hardly legible editors differ in their reading of it ;
see Tupper's edition.

NOTES I 9 i

H. The answer to this riddle is usually taken to be the Day ; the indications
given are purposely vague and negative. Tupper thinks it is the Moon.
184. miclum tidmn, lit. 'at great times (or hours),' may mean aj times when
the important services, such as high mass, were held, i.e. near midday.

189. The word niht is well chosen with a view to misleading the guesser.

190. Wieccan laste, 'with footsteps of an exile.' Daylight is regarded as
travelling across the world.

195. ac, 'for.'

196. earmost, ' the most poorly endowed,' i.e. the most negatively constituted
of all created things.

200. bearnum may be for the more usual manna bearmim or ylda bearmini,

'sons of men ' ; or we may read beornum, 'warriors,' i.e. men. wearft,

like hran in 1. 192, is a perfect in meaning, ' has been.'

206. WOhwyrda gesceapu, ' the course of its devious destiny. '

208. WOrdum becneft, 'gives indications.'

I. A case for a sword, made of various kinds of wood in the form of a cross and

richly decorated.

215. seolfres dSBl I a common periphrasis.

216. J738S, 'of Him who.'

223. WUlfheafodtreO seems to have the same meaning here as weargtreo,
'felon tree,' i.e. 'gibbet' in the form of a cross, wearg, 'wolf,' is commonly
used for an outlaw.

225. gieddes J»isses makes better metre than frisses gieddes ; see Appendix, § 3.

226. SC . . . onnede, 'who does not despair.' The MS. reading se hine on
mede makes no sense. The verb ormedan from the adj. ormod, ' despairing,'
' hopeless,' does not seem to occur elsewhere, but it would be a quite regular
derivative. Copyists frequently confuse the letters n and r ; see 1. 60 n.

23. RHYME POEM

MS. In the Exeter Book, fols. 94-95. Text of the MS., together with

an emended version, is printed in Grein-Wtilcker, iii. (first part) 156 ff.

2. getah, the emendation required by the rhyme, seems here to have the
meaning of the weak verb teon, ' to appoint,' 'order.'

5. SCgon and alegon are non-W.S. forms, like gefegon and wegon in the
next line. ne alegon, 'did not flag.'

7. If the MS. reading wennan be retained, it must be regarded as the Kentish
form of wynnum, 'joyfully.' The sense of 11. 7-8 seems to be '(richly) adorned
steeds bore me over the plains, to my joy and delight, on long journeys under
the branches (of the forest).'

9-10. ' Then was the earth alive (lit. awakened) with growth, stretched out,
extended under the sky, mightily roofed over.'

11. The MS. reading gerscype is unintelligible ; the word geapscipe, 'cunning,'
'shrewdness,' occurs in A.-S. Chron., anno 1086 and anno 1090.

13. This looks like a nonsense-line, a veritable rhyme-orgy.

14. If any sense is to be made of this line, the MS. reading leoj>u must be
emended ; transl. ' there was a voyage upon the sea in which my beloved did
not desert me.

18. Various emendations have been suggested for the meaningless ic mcegen of
the MS.

MISCELLANEOUS

22. Stepegongum Weold, 'had control over my steps,' i.e. 'moved.'
24. ofol : the MS. reading of oil has no meaning ; ofalan does not occur else-
where ; it may mean 'fail to grow,' hence ' fail.'

26. WUIliendo, 'abiding,' 'lasting.' wilbec bescaer is unintelligible,

and no satisfactory emendation has been proposed.
32. ' Lords grew in wisdom, enterprising men grew in wealth.'
35. bleo glissade is Ettmiiller's suggestion for the missing portion ; transl.
'colour glistened.'

The second half of the poem, which we omit, is a mere metrical tour de force,
sense being mostly sacrificed to rhyme.

GLOSSARY

THE order of words is alphabetical, save that words with the prefix ge- are entered
under the letter which follows the ge-. The head-words are in their Early West
Saxon forms ; forms occurring in the text of the selections will in most cases be
found in the glossary with cross-references to the normalized E.W.S. forms.

The references are to selection (thick type) and line.

' Past-present ' or ' Strong- weak ' verbs are entered under their infinitives (actual
or hypothetical) ; the other parts of these verbs are also entered, with cross-references.

The number after an ablaut or ' strong ' verb denotes its class.

a. accusative.
d. dative.

f. feminine, feminine noun.

g. genitive.

nt. masculine, masculine noun.

ABBREVIATIONS

«. neuter, neuter noun, note.

pi. plural.

p.p. past participle.

prs. present.

pst. past.

red. v. reduplicating verb.

s. singular.

sb. substantive, noun.

v. verb ; vide.

iu. with.

•wk. weak.

a adv. ever

abeodan 2 announce 16 27, 49, deliver

(message) 9 16, make proclamation,

command 20 16, proffer 22 23
abldan i w. g. wait for, await
abrecan 4 break, break up ; storm,

take by assault 22 218
abregdan 3 wrest away 19 269, throw

up, raise 14 318
abreotan 2 destroy, kill
abreoSan 2 fail
abroden v. abregdan
abugan 2 be warped, start
ac conj. but ; after neg. sent. freq. — nay,

nay rather, on the contrary
ac/ oak
acennan beget

acol adj. quivering ; d.pl. 19 465
actreow n. oak-tree
acweccan shake, brandish
acwellan kill
acweSan 5 speak, say
acySan make known, declare
ad m. funeral fire, funeral pile
adl/ sickness, disease
adrencan submerge, drown
adrlfan i drive away

adrincan 3 drink up, absorb

seder /. vein ; d.pl. in streams 4 365
14 124

sefen m. evening 14 531 19 108

sefenleoS n. evening song

sefensprsec /. speech made the evening
before

sefest/ envy 12 43 21 215

seflast/ changed course

sefnan do, perform, accomplish, achieve

sefre adv. ever ; sefre . . . ne never
3 ii 8 39 14 343

seftan adv. behind 15 63

softer (i) adv. (a) after, following 19
105 ; (b) time afterwards 4 12 7 77 17 8
22 205. (2) prep, (a) place alongside
of, close to 11 76 ? 14 600 ; along,
over, throughout 4 127 14 82, 242,
264 19 132, 212, 426 ; following,
after 1 12 2 5 19 109, 195, 331 ;
(£) time after freq. sefter )>on after
that 14 106 20 22 ; (c) (sorrow) for 6 50
11 99, 101 14 419 ; according to
20 86

seftercweSend m. after-speaker(s), pos-
terity

sefterweard/r<?/. w. d. after, in pursuit of

193 O

I94

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

sefjxmca, sefjmnca grudge, vexation,

displeasure

seghwa each, each one
seghwser adv. everywhere
ffighwseSer, segSer each (of two) ; either

22 193 ; segSer . . . and both . . .

and 16 224
seghwelc, seghwilc, aeghwylc each,

every
sent /. possession ; wealth ; on ...

sent into the power 4 42 14 1 8
sehta v. eaht
aelan burn up
selc each
seld- v. ield-
selde -v. ielde
selfare v. eallfaru
selmesgeorn charitable
selmihtig almighty ; alltnectig North,
sene adv. once, on one occasion
senges, sengum v. senig
senig any ; senig . . . ne no
Eenlic single, unique, matchless
Eeppled dull yellow? 20 121 n.
ser ( i ) adv. before, previously, formerly ;
freq. gives plup erf . sense to a past indie.

(2) conj. (a) until 20 102 ; (b) w. sub-

junct. before, ("$} prep- w. d. before

17 2 20 3 ; ser Jjon conjunct, w. sub-

junct. before
ser = seror compar. adv. ; no J>y ser none

the more 11 104 14 136
sercwide m. ancient saying 12 4
Eerdseg m. early morning 4 341 19 198 ;

pi. former days 9 33, 70
seren adj. brazen
serende n. errand, message
serendsprsec/ errand, message
serest (i) superl. adj. set serestan at

first 20 69. (2) superl. adv. first of

all, in the beginning
eeror compar. adv. earlier, in earlier times
serglsed adj. fortunate, happy
sergod adj. old and good, very good
serist v. jierest
sern n. house 4 21
sernanride, gallop 16 191
eerra compar. adj. former 11 52
sergestreon n. ancient or ancestral

treasure

sergeweorc n. ancient handiwork
£es n. carrion
S9SC m. (ash-tree) spear
seschere m. 'ash army,' Danish force

(sesc = Danish warship)
sescholt n. 'ash- wood,' spear

sescsteall m. ' spear-place, ' battle-field

2 21

sescstede m. battle-ground 12 16 n.
sescwiga (spear) warrior
set prep. w. d. at, in ; during freq. ; by,

near 4 170, 174 5 17 9 2 ; w. persons

from 2 49 14 491 16 39 20 60 ; with,

on 8 45

set m. food 19 165

setberan 4 carry away ; carry 14 486
setfeohtan 3 fight one's way 13 1 8
setforan prep. w. d. in front of 16 16
setgsedere adv. together
setgiefa feeder
seththa v. o88e 17 13
setsamne adv. together
setspringan 3 spurt out, setspranc 4 181
setstseppan 6 step, advance
setstandan 6 stick fast 481
settrena*//. poisonous 16 146 ; settrynne

1647

setwegan 5 carry off 4 442
setwltan i reproach, blame, taunt 4

210 16 220, 250

seSele adj. of noble race, noble, glorious
geseSele adj. natural 15 7
seSeling m. prince, noble, chief
seSelu, seSelo f. noble descent, lineage

1 5 16 216 ; traditional rank 19 353 ;

hereditary privileges 19 339 ; noble

qualities 4 109 19 186 22 219
seftm m. breath, blast 14 336
sewiscmod adj. disgraced
afseran terrify
afsestnian fasten
afeallan red. v. fall
afierran remove ; afeorde 4 329
aflleman put to flight
afrisc adj. African
afyllan fill
afysan drive away
agselan neglect
aganjfo/. prs. v. possess, have
agan athem. v. pass away ; prs. subj.

aga 7 69

agangan red. v. come to pass 14 530
age v. agan

agen adj. own ; peculiar, special 21 72
agendfrea lord
ageotan 2 drain away 19 430
agiefan 5 give back 4 328 16 16
agieldan 3 ageald offered itself 14 385
agletan, agetan destroy, slay 13 1 6 15 1 8
aglac n. torment, horrible plight
aglseca formidable or terrible one, used

of monster or warrior

GLOSSARY

195

agrafan 6 carve

ahafen, aksefen v. ahebban

ahebban 6 raise ; utter

ahierdan harden, strengthen 14 587

ahleapan red. v. leap up

ahliehhan 6 laugh 14 113

ahsode v. ascian

ahte v. agan

ahycgan conceive, plan

ahydan hide

ahySan destroy

alaedan lead

al^tan red. v. leave behind, abandon

14 334 ; let, allow 14 360
alan 6 grow, flourish
aid v. eald
aldor v. ealdor
alecgan lay, place
aledon v. alecgan
alegon v. alicgan
alesan 5 pick, choose
alicgan 5 slacken, fail
allefan grant, permit
alimpan 3 come to pass
alwalds v. eallwealda
alwaldend v. eallwealdend
alwihta v. eallwihta
am weaver's stick
ametan 5 measure out
amierran check, hinder
an one ; only, alone 1 41 2 34 4 46,

141 9 15 11 39, 52, 99 19 313 21

203 ; single 4 363 ; g.pl. anra not

transl. 14 166 etc.
ana alone, only
and and

anda vexation, annoyance
andsege adj. lasting one day
andeages, andseges adv. eye to eye, full

in the face 4 95
andgiet n. understanding
andlang adj. continuous, whole (day or

night) ; upright 14 390
andlean n. retribution 19 19
andrysne adj. terrible, awful
andsaca adversary, foe
audslieht m. stroke, coup de grace 4 328,

37i

andswaru/ answer
andwlggearo adj. ready for battle 14 543
ansede wild spot, wilderness 9 5
anfloga solitary flyer
anga adj. sole, only
anginn n. enterprise, plot
anhaga solitary one, recluse ; a.s. an-

bogan 6 40

anhygdig adj. resolute, determined ;

anhydig 3 2 14 362
anlehst adv. last
animan 4 take away, destroy
aninga adv. absolutely, entirely
anllcnes/ likeness
anmod adj. resolute, determined
anpseS m. single track, narrow path
anrsed adj. resolute, steadfast
anriht adj. privileged 19 358 n.
anslen/ face 7 91 20 79
angetrum n. unique army
anwiggearwe v. andwlggearo
anyman v. animan
ar m. messenger 12 2 16 26
ar f. honour, favour ; g.pl. arna 20

42 ; d.pl. aran 19 245
ar/. oar 21 123

arsedan determine ; /./. arsed 6 5 n.
arseran raise
areafian despoil, strip
areccan stretch out, extend ; /./. areaht

23 10 ; explain 20 34 ; narrate 20 9
arfsest adj. dutiful, respectful 21 190 ;

kind, merciful 20 32 21 133
argiefa giver of honour, generous

patron 21 77

arhwset adj. eager for honour, gallant
arlsan i arise
aron prs. ind. pi. are 7 82
arstafas//. kindness, benevolence
assede v. asecgan
asaclan tie, bind 20 105 ; hamper 19

386
ascacan 6 shake, brandish ; pst. asceoc

16 230

ascian hear of 3 21 ; experience 4 430
asecgan say, declare
asettan set up, erect
aslgan i sink (into oblivion)
aspringan 3 start asunder ; pst.

aspranc 19 291
astandan 6 stand up
astlgan i rise, ascend ; mount, in-
crease 20 133 21 167 ; enter 20 69
aswebban 'put to sleep ,' kill; annul

19 336

aswefede v. aswebban
aswlcan i desert, betray
atemian tame

ateon 2 draw near 14 148 ; go 19 406
atol adj. horrible, terrible, fierce
atolic adj. horrible 14 166
atortan m. poison-twig 14 586 n.
US m. oath
aSecgan destroy, kill

196

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

aSringan 3 push 9 57 ; force one's way
22 7

aSswaru/. oath

aSsweord n. oath-sword ? 4 264 n.

awa arfy. ever

awsefan weave, spin

aweaxan ra/. v. grow up 9 19

aweccan awaken

awierdan destroy

awiergan curse ; /./. awyrgda ac-
cursed 20 43

awiht v. owiht

awrltan i write

ba, bam v. begen

bsec n. back ; under baec backwards ;

ofer bsec back
beedan force, urge, constrain
bsel n. funeral fire ; conflagration 20 91
bselc curtain, screen 19 73
baelcan shout
bselegesa terror of fire
baelfyr n. funeral fire
gebseran behave
bsernan burn, set on fire
gebseru n.pl. gestures, exclamations 8

21, 44

bsetan furnish with bridle
bseteran v. betera
bseSweg m. 'bath- way,' sea
ban n. bone 22 200 ; bony scale or

plate 14 321 ; tusk 14 387
bana slayer ; cause of death 4 288
bancofa ' bone-chamber, ' body
banfset n. ' bone- vessel,' body
banfag adj. decorated with bone or

ivory

bangar m. deadly spear
banhelm m. 'bone-protection,' shield?

531

banhus n. 'bone-house,' body
banloca 'bone-defence,' body
gebarn v. biernan
bat m. boat
baolan bathe
be, "hi prep, w. d. (a) place by, near; (b]

extended use by, with, in ; concerning

3357181919; judging by 12 6, 46 ;

in proportion to 19 243 ; be J?am

thereby 16 9

beacen n. signal, beacon
beacnian v. blecnan
beado/ battle
beadocaf adj. bold in battle
beadocrseftig adj. skilled in fighting
beadogrlma battle-helmet

beadohraegl n. ' battle-dress,' corslet
beadolac n. ' battle-play, ' battle
beadomsegen n. ' battle-strength,' armed

host

beadomece m. battle-sword
beadorses m. battle-rush, onset
beadorinc m. warrior
beadorof adj. gallant in fight
beadorun/. hostile thought, malice
beadoscearp adj. sharp in battle
beadosearo n. armour
beadowsepen n. weapon of offence
beadoweorc n. battle-work
beaduwe v. beado
beag, beah m. circular ornament, ring,

collar, bracelet, crown etc. ; beg 14

beaggiefa giver of rings
beaghord n. ring-hoard, treasure
beaghroden adj. p.p. adorned with

rings etc.

beald, bald adj. bold
bealdllce adv. confidently, boldly; super!.

baldlicost 16 78
bealdor m. chieftain
bealobenn/ grievous wound
bealocwealm m. violent death
bealofull adj. dangerous, mischievous
bealohycgend m. meditator of mischief,

determined foe
bealohygdig adj. meditating harm or

mischief

bealoleas adj. innocent, good
bealonl'5 m. dangerous malice
bealosIS m. dangerous journey
bealospell n. evil tidings
beam m. tree 13 21 22 9 ; gallows 13

41 ; Cross 20 116 ; wooden object 22

218 ; piece of wood 9 30 ; column,

pillar 19 94, in, 454 ; pole (standard)

19 249 ; ray 19 121
bearhtm m. glance, flash 11 43 ; clamour,

noise 19 65 ; blast 14 270
bearm m. bosom ; interior ; possession

4 204
beam n. child ; young (of animal) 22

bearo m. grove, wood
beatan red. v. beat, strike
bebeorgan 3 guard, protect
bebod n. commandment
bebugan 2 surround, encompass
becneS v. blecnan
becuman 4 come, arrive
bed&lan deprive
bedd n. bed, bedding

GLOSSARY

I97

bedreosan 2 p.p. bedroren deprive
befseatan entrust, commit
befaran 6 surround, envelop
befeallan red. v. surround
befeallan red. v. deprive
befeohtan 3 deprive by fighting 22 47
beflowan red. v. flow round, surround
befon red. v. surround, envelop
beforan ( i ) adv. in front, before ; (2) prep.

w. d. (a) before, in front of, (b) time

before 16 67

begang m. expanse ; course 20 22
begeat v. begSotan
begen m. both ; g. bega 2 29 4 184, f.

ba 4 263, d. bam 14 553
begeotan 2 pour in 20 109
begiellan 3 scream round
begietan 5 acquire 15 73 ; come upon

11 64 ; fall upon 7 6 8 32 ; attack 4

128, 206 8 41

beglldan i slip away from, desert 23 14
begnornian lament, bewail
behealdan red. v. keep, continue 19 109 ;

guard 19 205 ; behold, see 9 5 14

118

behengon v. behdn
behindan (i) adv. behind 19 372, (2)

prep. w. d. behind 15 60
behon red. v. hang round 7 17 14 407
behreosan 2 p.p. behroren covered 677
behrlman cover with ice or hoar-frost
belacan red. v. play round 9 7
beleac v. beltlcan
belean 6 dissuade (from) 14 13
belecgan envelop, surround 10 1 1
beleolc v. belacan

beleosan 2 p.p. beloren deprived 4 133
belgan 3 make angry
beltlcan 2 close, enclose, shut in
bemum v. bleme
bemurnan 3 mourn ; pst. beinearn 4

bena petitioner ; he bena wses he asked

14408

benc/ bench

bencsitttnd sitter on bench, guest
bencbel(u) n.f. bench-plank, floor
bend m.f. bond, fetter
beneah v. benugan
benemnan solemnly declare
beneotan 2 deprive
beniman 4 deprive
benn/. wound

benngeat n. wound-opening, gash
benugan pst. prs. v. enjoy, possess
beodan/r/. //. 0/"bIdan 19 166

beodan 2 offer 4 145, 356 ; proclaim 1

54 n. ; command 19 191, 352
beofiaS v. bifian
beohata v. blhata
boom ist pers. s. ofbeon 22 89
beon at hem. v. be
beor n. beer, beer-drinking
beorg m. hill, mountain 19 132, 212 22

122 ; grave-mound, barrow 11 56 14

289, 302, 323, 411, 431 21 34
gebeorg n. defence, protection
beorgan 3 w. d. guard, protect
beorghliS n. hill-side, cliff 10 364
beorhierde m. custodian of beer, butler

21 141
beorht adj. bright, shining ; (of a voice)

clear 21 160

beorhte adv. brightly 21 49
beorhtrodor m. bright heavens
beorn m. fighter, man
beorscealc m. feaster, reveller
beorsele m. beer-hall, hall
beorbegu/i beer-drinking
(ge)beot n. promise 6 70 9 65 16 15,

213 ; boast 2 26 14 25 ; on beot

boastfully 16 27
beotan v. beatan
(ge)beotian promise, vow
ber imperat. of beran
bera bear 21 29
beran 4 bear, carry ; often used w. shield,

armour, helmet etc. = march
bereafian deprive
beregnian prepare 19 147
berenedon v. beregnian
bereofan 2 p.p. berofen deprive
berian make bare ; clear 14 535 desert,

quit 22 119

beron pst. pi. of beran
berstan 3 burst, crack
bescser v. bescieran
bescieran 4 cut, trim ? 23 26
bescierian deprive 12 8 13 55 21 77
bescyredne v. bescierian
bescufan 2 push down, hurl down
besettan set round, adorn
besierwan ensnare, entrap
besittan 5 besiege, invest
beslean 6 deprive (by slaying) 15 42
besmltan i defile, pollute
besmiSian forge
besnySSan deprive
bestandan 6 stand along, line
bestleman wet 19 364
beswlcan i deceive, betray
besyrwan v. besierwan

198

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

(ge)betan amend, repair 19 131 ; settle

11 163

betera compar. adj. better, superior
betimbran build
betlic adj. excellent, handsome
betst superl. adj. best
betton v. bStan
bejjeccan cover 19 60
bejringan 3 oppress
bewsegnan offer, convey 4 417
bewawan red. v. blow on, sweep 6 76
beweaxan red. v. overgrow
bewegan 5 cover, envelop
bewenian attend 4 235
beweorpan 3 surround 10 5
bewerian defend ; w. d. guard (against)
bewindan 3 wind round ; surround 14

414, 516 ; bind 18 42 ; revolve,

ponder 21 153 ; swing 14 588
bewitian watch, observe 4 195 ; attend,

accompany 14 267
bewreon i cover up 6 23
bewyrcan surround 14 429 22 171
bibod v. bebod
bid n. stay, halt 4 361 22 18
(ge)bldan i wait, remain ; w. g. or foil.

clause await
gebldan i find, meet with ; experience,

live to see
biddan 5 ask, request ; pray, entreat,

urge

blecnan point out, signify
bieldan encourage
bleme wk.f. trumpet
bierman ferment, be in a turmoil 12 42
biernan 3 burn, be on fire
biersteS v. berstan
blewan polish, get ready
bifian quiver, tremble
big prep. w. d. = bl near
bigeal v. begiellan
biglad v. beglldan
blhata challenger, champion 19 253
bihongen v. behon
bihrorene v. behreosan
bill n. sword

billgeslieht ». sword-clash, blow
billswseS n. sword-track, swathe of

corpses

bilocen v. belucan
gebind n. union, surface (of sea)
bindan 3 bind, bind fast
bineat t>. beneotan
binom v. beniman
bloS v. beon
bireS v. berau

birofen v. bereofan

biscyred, biscyrge v. bescierian

bisgian afflict, worry

bisgo/i trouble, worry, anxiety, distress

bisig adj. busy

bltan i bite, cut, penetrate

bite m. bite, slash 11 74

biter adj. sharp, keen 11 23 14 387,

399 ; thorny, repellent 8 31 ; bitter

7 4, 55 ; fierce, hostile, cruel 14 270 16

85, in 24 26 ; d.pl. bitterly? 20 106
biS 3 s. prs. ind. of beon is, will be,

shall be

biwaune/./. 0/" bewawan
biwergan v. bewerian
biwrah. v. bewreon
blac adj. white, gleaming, bright ; pale

13 41 22 66

blacian grow pale ; fade
blsed m. prosperity, success, glory,

splendour ; heyday, prime
blaed v. bled

blsedagend adj. prosperous, successful
blsest m. blowing, blast
blanca horse, steed
bland n. mingling, harmony 19 309
blandan red. v. mix, mingle
blandenfeax adj. grey-haired
bled/ fruit, bloom 21 34
bledkwset adj. rich in fruit or foliage

22 9

blencan cheat
bleo n. colour, hue ; form
bleobord n. ' coloured board, ' board

for draughts or chess
bllcan i glitter, shine
bliss/, joy, happiness
(ge)blissian rejoice ; w. d. cause

pleasure 13 78
bllSe adj. joyous, merry 8 21, 44 19

469 ; kindly, amiable 14 479 21 223

24 15

blod n. blood

blodegesa terrible bloodshed
blodfag adj. blood-stained
blodgian cover with blood
blodig adj. bloody
blostm m. blossom, flower
blowan red. v. bloom, flower
boc/ book .
bocere m. writer, author
boda messenger, preacher 12 4 ; herald

16 49

bodian, bodigean announce
bog m. arm? bough? 10 n ; leg 19 171
boga bow (for shooting)

GLOSSARY

I99

bogan w. g. boast 12 28

bohte v. bycgan

bold n. dwelling, house

gebolgen p.p. of belgan angry, fierce

bolster n. pillow

bonan v. bana

bond v. bindan

bord n. shield

bordhreoSa shield-formation, phalanx

bordrand m. shield

bordweall m. shield-wall

bordwudu m. shield

geboren p.p. of beran own brother 7 98

bosm m. bosom ; interior

bot f. remedy, amendment, compensa-
tion

b63 v. bogan

brad adj. broad

brsed pst. ind. of bregdan plucked 16
154 14 305, 398

brsedan spread, spread out

brand m. firebrand, burning wood, fire

brant adj. tall, lofty (ship) 14 70

brgac v. brflcan

breahtm m. loud noise, sound

gebrec n. crash

brecan 4 break, break through, break
up ; break forth, gush 14 289

gebregd n. rapid movement ? skill ? 13

7i
bregdan 3 draw forth, pluck ; wave 14

16 ; row 21 123 ; strike (tent) 19 222 ;

play tricks 12 28 n. ; p.p. gebro(g)den

woven 14 54, 570, ornamented 14 581
brego m. ruler, king
bregostol m. throne, royal seat
breme adj. celebrated, illustrious
breodaS v. bregdan 12 28 n.
breost n. gen. in plur. breast, heart,

mind

breostcaru/ anxiety, care 7 4 8 44
brSostcofa mind, heart
breosthord mind, heart
br§ost(ge)hygd n.f. thought
breostnett n. 'breast-net,' corslet
breostge]>anc m. thought, counsel
breostgewsede, n. ' breast-dress,' corslet
breostweorCung /. ' breast -ornament,'

corslet

brer tn. briar
bricg v. brycg
brim n. sea, water
brimfugol m. sea-bird
brimgiest m. 'sea-comer,' billow
brimlad/. sea-voyage
brimllSend sea-farer, mariner

brimmann m. seaman

brimwlsa leader of seamen

bringan bring

britnian v. brytnian

bro(g)den v. bregdan

broga fear, terror

brohte v. bringan

brosnian crumble, decay

broSor m. brother

gebroSor, gebroftru brothers

brSSorgield n. payment or vengeance

for brethren

brucan 2 w. g. make use of, .enjoy
brudon v. bregdan 19 222
brugdon v. bregdan 14 1 6
brun adj. burnished, glittering ; dark,

swarthy 19 70
brunecg adj. polished
brycg/ bridge

brycgweard m. bridge-guardian
bryd/. bride, wife
brymmas late pi. o/brim 24 12
brytencyning m. great king
brytnian distribute
brytta dispenser, distributor
bryttian tear in pieces 15 60 ; allot,

distribute 1 102 11 3 21 171
buan dwell, inhabit 9 35 22 112
(ge)bugan 2 give ground, retire 4 299,
355- 373 14 341 16 185, 276 ; sink,
lower oneself 4 231, 379 14 498, 563,
537 ; bend, coil 14 310, 312
bugan v. buan
bundenheord adj. with plaited hair ? 14

419

bflne wk. f. cup, goblet 6 94
bur m. apartment, house
burg /I fortified place or town ; in plur.
often otiose w. preps, on burgum, ofer
burgum, etc.
burghlio1 n. fortified hill-side ? 19 70 ;

0r=beorghli$ q.v.
burgsele m. hall
burgstede m. town
burgtun m. wall, hedge? 8 31
burgj?elu f. planking, boards of the

castle

burgware, -an//, townsmen
burgweall m. town-wall
burgweard m. guardian, chief
burna stream, river
burj>egn m. house-thane, chamberlain

16 121

buruh v. burg

butan (i) prep, without 2 34 20 58;
(2) conj. save, except, but 4 69 1 18

20O

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

14 596 ; w. subjunct. unless 16 71

20 59

(ge)bycgan buy, pay for
byht m. curve, expanse 22 145
bylda builder
byldan v. bieldan
byme v. bleme
gebyrd f. birth, order of birth 4 134

133 '

byre m. son 4 253 11 83 24 10
byre m. opportunity, occasion 16 121
byrele m. cup-bearer
byreS v. beran
byrht v. beorht
byrig v. burg
gebyrmed v. bierman
byrnan v. biernan
byrne ivk. f. corslet, chain-shirt
byrnhama corslet
byrnwiga warrior (wearing corslet)
gebysgad v. bisgian
bysig v. bisig
byS v. biS
bywan v. blewan

caf adj. prompt, bold

cafllce adv. promptly, boldly

cald v. ceald

(ge)camp m. battle, war

campstede m. battle-field

can v. cunnan

candel/ candle, luminary

carleas adj. care-free, ruthless? 19 166

carseld n. abode of care, wretched

lodging ? 7 5

carsIS m. anxious journey
caru/1 care, anxiety, grief
carwielm m. surge of sorrow
casere m. emperor
ceald adj. cold
cealliau shout
ceap m. bargain, exchange
cearo v. earn
ceaster/ town, city
ceasterbuend m. town-dweller, citizen
celled ? 5 30 16 283
cempa fighter, warrior
cen m. torch, name of runic letter =& 20

80 n., 119

cene adj. brave, bold
cennan engender, beget, produce
cenSu/. bravery, boldness
ceol m. boat, ship
ceolj?elu/l ship-deck, ship, boat
ceorl m. man, fighting man

(ge)c§osan 2 choose ; take to, go to 16

cldan blame, chide

clegan call, summon

cierm m. shout, cry, clamour

cierman cry, shout

cierran turn, return 22 150 ; change 20

126 ; re-arrange 9 66
clgean v. clegan
cild n. child

cinnbeorg/ ' chin-defence,' visor
ciricnytt/. church-service
cirm v. cierm
cist v. cyst
clsene adj. pure
clamm m. bond, fetter
dec-fan 2 split, cleave
cleofu//. ofclif
clibbor adj. tenacious
clif n. cliff, hill-side
clipian call, shout
clyppan embrace
gecnawan red. v. recognize
cneo n. knee
cneomgeg m. kinsman ; pi. lineage,

ancestry 15 8
cneoris/. generation
cneosibb/l race, family
cniht m. lad, young man
cnihtwesende being a boy or young lad
cnosl n. kindred, family
cnossian intrans. dash, strike
cnyssan strike, batter, buffet
col adj. cool
colian grow cool
collenferO adj. bold, confident
colran v. col
con(n) v. cunnan
corn n. grain

corSer n. troop, company, assembly
craft m. skill, aptitude, cunning ;

strength, power, faculty
crseftig adj. skilled
cread v. crudan
cringan 3 collapse, perish
crudan 2 press, hasten
cruncon v. cringan
cuman 4 come
cumbol n. standard, banner
cumbolgehnast n. clash of standards,

battle
cunnan pst. prs. v. know, know how,

be able
cunnian test, make trial of ; experience,

have experience
CflS adj. known, well-known ; familiar

GLOSSARY

201

cufte v. cunnan

cwacian quake, quiver

cwsedon v. cweSan

cwanian bewail, lament

cwealm m. violent death ; on cwealme

perishing 19 384
cwealmbealo n. violent death
cwealmcuma murderous visitant
cweman w. d. please
cwen/. queen ; wife 19 427
CwSnlic adj. queenlike, worthy of a

queen

(ge)cweSan 5 say, speak, utter
gecweSan 5 agree, agree upon 14 37,

455
cwic adj. alive, living

cwide m. word, utterance 12 20

cwidegiedd n. song

cwieldrof adj. eager to kill, savage

cwiS v. cweSan

cwlSan lament, mourn 6 9 14 439

cwom -v. cuman

cyme m. coining

cymeS v. cuman

cymllcor compar. adv. more handsomely,

more splendidly
gecynd f.n. nature, course of nature

22 197
gecynde adj. natural 14 391 ; hereditary

1*554

cynegod adj. royally generous
cynerlc n. kingdom
cynej?rym m. royal power, majesty
cyning m. king

cynn n. kind, race; family, kin
cynren n. kind, progeny
cyrm v. cierm
gecyrre v. cierran
cyssan kiss
cyst/, choice, pick, best ; choice quality,

excellence ; cystum nobly 1 56 ;

chosen band 19 229, 230
cySan make known, proclaim ; show,

display 14 390 19 292 21 179
native land 15 38, 58

dsed/ deed, action ; violent deed 11 92

dsedlean n. recompense, retribution

dsedweorc n. deed, work

daeg m. day

dsegrlm «. number (of days) 14 205 ;

lifetime 12 12

dsegscield m. shield or defence by day
daegweorc n. day's work
dsegwoma dawn
dsel m. part, portion ; freq. used w. g.

as a periphrasis, and not transl. ;

daelum partially, variously 12 22
(ge)dselan distribute, allot ; divide, part,

separate ; engage in 16 33
dagas v. dseg
dagian dawn
gedal n. distribution
daroS m. javelin
dead adj. dead
gedeaf v. dftfan
deag, dean v. dugan
deall adj. proud
dear v. durran
deaS m. death
deatJdaeg m. day of death
deaSdrepe m. death-blow
deaSscua shadow of death, deadly

shadow

deaSspere n. deadly spear
deaSstede m. field of battle
dea'SwIgsceaft m. deadly war-spear
deawigfeOer adj. dewy-feathered, wet-
feathered
gedefe adj. fitting
degolne v. dlegle
deman judge ; adjudge, award 17 14

18 6 1 20 86
demend m. judge
dennade ? perk, error for Sanode ' grew

wet ' 15 12 n.
denu/ valley, glen
deofol m. devil, fiend
deofolgield n. idol
d§0p adj. deep; great, mighty 19 315 ;

grave, important 19 434 ; heavy,

grievous 19 422
deope adv. profoundly 6 89 ; solemnly

18 48

deor n. animal, beast
deor adj. brave, bold
deorc adj. dark, gloomy
deore v. dlere
deorllce adv. boldly
deormod adj. brave, bold
derian w. d. injure
gedlegan come safely through, survive
dlegle adj. secret, hidden, mysterious
dlepe/ deep sea
dlere adj. precious, valuable ; dear,

beloved

dierne adj. secret, hidden, mysterious
dlgol v. dlegle
dimm adj. dim, dark
dlope v. deope
dcemid v. deman
dogor n. day

2O2

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

dohte v. dugan

dohtor/ daughter

dol adj. foolish

dolgielp n. foolish pride, vainglory

dollic adj. foolish, crazy

dolscaSa frenzied destroyer

dom m. judgement, decision, decree ;
power 19 457 ; choice, discretion 4
85, 363 16 38 ; reputation, glory

domgeorn adj. desirous of good repute,
self-respecting

don athem. v. place, put 4 176, 204 13
87 14431 18 49 ; appoint, commission
7 43 ; make 10 14 11 9 ; regard, account
7 20 ; confer, award 16 196 ; do 21
56, 183, 249 ; often takes place of
another vb. , do, did

dorste v. durran

draca dragon

drsefend m. chaser, hunter

gedrseg v. gedrSag

gedreag n. troop, crowd

dream m. sound of revelry ; revelry ;
rejoicing, joy

dreccan afflict, crush

drefan stir up, churn up ; make turbid
14 256

drencan drown

dreng m. Danish warrior

dreogan 2 endure, suffer ; incur ; engage
in, perform 4 276 14 180 22 164, 199

dreor m. blood

dreorig adj. blood-stained 14 256 ; sad,
sorrowful

dreorighleor adj. sad- faced

dreorsele m. dreary dwelling-place

(ge)dreosan 2 fall ; fall away, decay ;
perish

drepan 5 strike, hit

drleman revel, rejoice

gedrleme adj. noisy, clamorous

drlfan i drive, urge along

(ge)driht v. gedryht

gedrinc n. drinking, carousal

drincan 3 drink

drohtaS m. way of life 23 39 ; experi-
ence, treatment 14 138

dropen = drepen p.p. of drepan

druncen p.p. of drincan soaked, drunk

14 33
druncen n. drunkenness 12 12 21 213

druncmennen n. drunken female serf

or maidservant

drusian become sluggish, droop
dryctin v. dryhten
dryge adj. dry

(ge)dryht/ band, troop, army

dryhtbearn n. princely child, princess

dryhtcwen/ noble queen

dryhten m. lord, king ; often used of God

dryhtenbealo n. great ruin

dryhtfolc n. multitude, host

dryhtguma retainer, warrior ; man

dryhtlic adj. noble, splendid

dryhtllce adv. splendidly, nobly

dryhtne m. corpse of warrior

dryhtscipe m. heroism, valour

dryhtsele m. splendid hall

dryhtsibb/ peace, alliance

dryhtgesIS m. retainer, warrior

dryhtmtniend m. dweller in a com-
munity, man

dryman v. drleman

gedrymost v. gedrleme

dryncfset n. drinking vessel

drysmian grow wet ? 14 236 19 40 n.

dufan 2 plunge in, penetrate

dugan pst. prs. v. be of use, be good

duguo1 /. what is good, choice ; choice
troop, flower of army ; band of adult
retainers, retinue, noble company ;
usage of good society ; benefit, advan-
tage 16 197 21 177

dun f. mountain, hill ; mountainous
wave 22 36

durran pst. prs. v. dare

duru/ door

dwelian afflict, hiritier

gedygan v. gedlegan

dygel v. dlegle

gedyne m. rattling, crashing

dynian resound, re-echo

dype v. dlepe

dyre v. dlere

dyrne v. dierne

dyrre v. durran

ea/ river

eac (i) adv. also, (2) prep, added to

eaca addition, reinforcement 19 194

eacen adj. pregnant

eacencrseftig adj. mighty

eacnian increase

ead n. prosperity, wealth .

eadig adj. prosperous 13 60 ; blessed 19 4

eadllce adv. prosperously, happily

eadmod v. eaSmOd

eadwela wealth, prosperity

eafora son, child

eafotJ n. strength

eage wk. n. eye

eagorstr§am m. sea, sea-current

GLOSSARY

203

eaht /. estimating, thinking 20 102 ;

counsel, deliberation 21 203
eahta num. eight
eahtian watch over 14 246 ; deliberate

on 21 139 ; appraise, estimate 14 441
eahtoSa num. eighth
eala interj. oh ! ah !
eald adj. old, ancient
ealdian grow old
ealdor m. prince, chief 4 56, 301 16 n,

53, 202, 222, 314 19 12, 31, 270

20 16
ealdor «. life 4 261, 312, 323 4 415 13

49, 54 14 12, 40, 204, 232, 342, 569;

vitals 14 273 ; awa to ealdre for ever

14569

ealdordseg m. life-day, lifetime
ealdorgedal n. parting from life, death
ealdordom m. high position, leadership

19 317 ; seniority, priority 19 335
ealdorlang adj. lifelong, eternal
ealdorleas adj. lordless, deprived of a

chief

ealdormann m. nobleman
ealdorgesceaft/ course of life
ealdorstol m. chief seat, throne
ealdgesgen/ old story, tradition
ealdgesKJ m. older retainer, senior
ealdgestreon n. old treasure
ealdsweord n. old, valuable sword
ealdwerig adj. accursed of old
ealgian protect, defend
eall adj. all
eall adv. entirely, wholly, quite ; ealle

3 16
ealles adv. entirely, utterly ; after all 22

118

eallfaru/ whole of the army 19 66
eallfela n.pl. indecl. very many
eallgearo adj. quite ready
eallgylden adj. all of gold
eallwealda omnipotent one, God
eallwealdend omnipotent
eallwihta///. all creatures
eallwundor n. marvellous thing
ealobenc/. ale-bench, feast
ealodriucend m. ale-drinker, man
ealoscerpen/ ? sickness? 14 151 n.
ealowsege n. ale-cup
ealowosa drunkard
earn m. uncle 4 71, 177
ear m. ? sea, ocean 22 37
eargebland n. mingling of the sea, surge
eard m. native land, home ; dwelling-
place, habitation 9 5 18 16 ; princi-
pality, estate 11 4 14 555

eardian inhabit

eardstapa wanderer

eare wk. n. ear 22 109

earfoS (i) n. hardship ; hard labour 14

36 ; (2) adj. distressing 13 n
earfoShwIl/ time of hardship
earfoSlic adj. in distress
earfoSUce adv. with difficulty
earfoSseelig adj. unhappy, wretched
earfoSsIS m. difficult journey, hard life
earg adj. cowardly
earm m. arm 4 277 14 15, 131 16 165

22 160
earm adj. wretched ; poor ; earmost

superl. most lacking, least substantial

22 196

earmcearig adj. sorrowful, wretched
earmhread/ arm-ornament 4418
earmlic adj. wretched
earmllce adv. wretchedly
earmsceapen adj. miserable, wretched
earn m. eagle,
(ge)earmmg/ desert, merit ; favour 16

196

eart 2 s. prs. ind. art
eastan adv. from the east ; on the east

1 8

eastseS n. shore, bank of river
eaSe adv. easily
eaSruod adj. humble 20 42, 69 ; obedient,

tame 13 91
eatol v. atol
geeawed v. lewan
eaxl/. shoulder, side
ebba ebb-tide
ecan v. eaca

ece adj. eternal, everlasting
ecg/1 edge ; sword
ecghete m. hate, persecution
ecnes/. eternity

eder m. barrier, gate, large door
edrum v. seder

edwitscipe m. ignominy, baseness
efengedselan share evenly
efeneald adj. of the same age
efeneardigende adj. dwelling in equality
efnan v. sefnan
efne adv. evenly, equally 19 76 ; exactly,

just 14 545 18 47 ; emphasizes vb.

leofaS efne sejjeah is actually alive

for all that 22 209 ; efne swa just as

4 152 22 28
efstan hasten

eft adv. again ; back again ; afterwards
egesa horror, terror
egesfull adj. terrible, formidable

204

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

egesian terrify

ggland v. legland

eldum v. ielde

ellen n. vigour, spirit ; courage, brave
deed; on ellen boldly 16 211; on
elne bravely 4 288 ; mid elne effectu-
ally 6 114; d.s. elne vigorously,
strenuously 4 298 21 187, 195, 209,
229 ; promptly 14 371 ; absolutely,
quite 4 157, 189

ellendged/. brave or bold deed

ellenrof adj. brave, gallant

ellenweorc «. gallant deed

elles adv. else

ellor adv. elsewhither, to another place

ellorgast m. alien spirit, demon

ellorsTS m. departure, death

elra compar. adj. another

el]?eod/i foreign people, foreign land

elj>eodig adj. foreign ; used absol.
foreigner 7 38 13 29

embe v. ymb

ende m. end

endelean n. final payment, retribution

endeleas adj. endless

endestsef m. final stage, end

endlefen num. eleven

enge adj. narrow ; cramped 20 123

engel m. angel

engu/. confinement 22 20, 27

ent m. giant

entisc adj. belonging to or made by
giants

eoce v. geoc

code pst. ind. o/"gan

eoderas v. eder

eofor m. wild boar

eoforspreot m. boar-spear

eoh m. horse 16 189 22 144 ; name of
runic letter =& 20 123

eolh m. elk ; runic letter = EO 9 67

eom ist pers. s. am

eorclanstan m. precious stone, gem

eored n. ? troop (of cavalry), army 19 157

eoredcyst/. choice troop

eoredmecg m. horseman, trooper

eoredj>reat m. troop of cavalry

eorl m. noble, chieftain ; warrior ; man

eorlscipe m. noble nature 14 441 ; noble
rank 11 4 ; noble or brave deed 1 37
1 141

eorlgestreon n. noble treasure or pos-
session

eorlgewsede n. armour

eormencynn n. mankind

eonnengrund m. the earth, the world

eormenlaf/ mighty legacy

eornoste adv. vigorously, fiercely

eorp adj. dark, dark brown

eorres v. ierre

eorSe wk. f. earth, world

eorSbflend m. inhabitant of earth, man

eorScyning m. king of the land

eorShfls n. earth-dwelling, cave

eorSscrsef n. cave

eortJsele m. cave

eorSweall m. rampart

eorSwela riches of the earth, wealth

eoten m. giant, ogre

eotenisc m. made or owned by giants

eow, eower you, your

eowd/. flock

goweS v. lewan

esne m. warrior 19 385 ; man 22 146

est f. favour, grace ; estum graciously,
liberally 4 418

esteadig adj. prosperous

etan 5 eat, devour

eS- v. leS-

eSel m. native laud ; home, homestead,
estate

eSelleas adj. homeless

eSelriht m. right belonging to owner-
ship of a homestead or estate 14 555

eSelstol m. throne, royal seat 1 122 ;
habitation 22 22

eftelweard m. guardian of land, king

exle v. eaxl

facen n. treachery, malice ; outrage

13 38

facensearo «. treacherous wile
facenstsef m. treacherous deed
fsec n. ? space of time
fsecne adj. treacherous, deceitful ; wicked
feeder m. father ; pi. forefathers, patri-
archs 19 29

faederseSelo pi. hereditary rank, lineage
faederencynn n. paternal descent
faederlar/ paternal teaching
f»ge adj. doomed to die, near death
faeger adj. beautiful ; suitable 14 464
fsegere adv. beautifully, splendidly 19
297 ; handsomely, courteously 4 388

14 499 23 20 ; fittingly, well 16 22 21
56 22 100

fsegerwyrde adj. fair of speech, polite

faegn adj. glad

fsegnian be glad

gefsegon v. gefeon

faegrian look beautiful

faagrost superl. adv. very fortunately

GLOSSARY

205

fS9(g)hSo/ hostility; feud, persecution,

attack

faela v. fela
fsele adj. kindly, good
fsemigx'. famig
fsemne w£. /I lady, woman
fser «. vehicle ; ship 4 33
faer #z. sudden danger 19 368 ; sudden

attack 4 128

fserbryne m. sudden burning, sunstroke
fserclamm m. sudden clutch, sudden

attack

fserdryre m, sudden collapse
fsergripe m. sudden clutch
fseringa adv. suddenly
fserllce adv. suddenly
faerscaSa sudden, dangerous foe
faerspell n. sudden tidings
fserwundor n. sudden miracle, prodigy
feest adj. firmly fixed, fast, firm ; secure
fseste adv. firmly, closely, tightly,

fast

fsestenn n. stronghold, fastness, refuge
fsestgangol adj. persevering, firm
fsestllce adv. firmly, steadily
fsestnian conclude (peace)
faestnung/. firm support, security
fset n.? gold plate 11 71 14 98
fset v. faeted
faeted adj. beaten thin 4 153 9 53 11 61 ;

made of or plated with beaten gold

11 27, 68 14 396, 521 22 147
faatedhleor adj. with gold-plated head

or bridle
fsette v. fseted
faeSm m. embrace ; bosom ; grasp 19

294, 403 ; possession 4 434 ; inside,

interior 22 100 ; womb 20 71
fag, fab. adj. variegated, patterned ;

stained ; decorated, adorned
fag, fah adj. hostile ; hateful, repulsive ;

g.pl. fara foes 14 80, 590
famgian foam

famig adj. foaming, covered with foam
famigbosma foam-breasted, foam-raising
fana banner
fandian w. g. make trial of, experience

11 92

fara v. fag (2)

faran 6 go, pass, march, proceed
gefaran 6 behave, fare 14 120
faroS m. current, stream
faru/. journey, march 19 441
fea few ; g. feara d. feawum, feaum
gefea vjk. m. joy
gefeah v. gef§on

feala v. fela

gefeald n. dwelling-place ? 2 42

feallan red. v. fall ; fall dead ; fall away,
decay

gefeallan red. v. fall upon 19 398

fealo adj. brown, brown-yellow

fealohilte adj. with brown or yellow hilt

feasceaft adj. destitute, abandoned,
friendless

feasceaftig adj. destitute, friendless

feax n. hair 4 366

fedan feed

gefegan put together, construct

gefegon v. gefeon

fehS v. fon

fela orig. sb. much, many w. g.

felageomor adj. very sad

felahrOr adj. very active

felaleof adj. very dear, beloved

gefelan feel

felawlanc adj. very proud, stately

feld m. plain, field

feldhfts n. tent

feleleas adj. without sensation

feng m. grasp, clutch

feng v. fon

fengel m. prince, lord

fenn n. fen, marsh

fennhli'S n. marshy hillside

fennhop n. recess or hole in a fen

fenngelad n. fen-track

feogean hate

feoh n. cattle 21 47 ; possessions, money,
treasure

feohglfre adj. covetous, avaricious

feohgift / gift or giving of money or
treasure

gefeoht n. fighting, battle

feohtan 3 fight

gefeohtan 3 win, gain 4 143 16 129

feohte wk. f. fight 2 1 8, 20 14 78

feohS v. feogean

feol/ file

feolan 3 make one's way, pass 22 138

feolheard adj. sharpened with a file

gefeon 5 rejoice

feond m. enemy ; devil, fiend

feondscaSa dangerous enemy

feora, feore v. feorh

feorh, feorg m.n. life ; d.pl. feorum life-
blood 4 212 ; dead body 4 434 ; vital
spot 4 380 ; (to) wldan feore for ever,
ever

feorhbana slayer

feorhbealo n. destruction of life

feorhberend m. living being, mortal

206

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

feorhcynn n. living race, race of men
feorhgiefu /. gift of life, or read feoh-

giefe ? 23 6

f eorhhord m. ' life-treasury, ' body
feorhhus n. ' life-house, ' body
feorhlean n. gift of life
feorhgenlSla deadly foe
feorhseoc adj. ' life-sick, ' mortally

wounded

feorhsweng m. death-blow
feorhS v. fer(h)8
feorhwund/1 mortal wound
feorm/ hospitality, harbouring
feormend m. supporter, patron 13 30 ;

caretaker 11 71
feormian cherish 21 230 ; attend to,

polish 11 68 ; consume, make a meal

of 14 126
feorradv. far, afar ; w. d. 1 21, 53 ; time

far back 6 90
feorr adj. distant 8 47
feorran adv. from afar ; time from far

back 18 3

feorrweg m. distant way
feorSa num. fourth
f§ower num. four
gefera companion, comrade 6 30 16 170,

229, 280

feran go, walk, journey, pass, depart
geferan behave, fare
fergau v. ferian
ferh v. feorh
fer(h)8 m.n. mind, spirit, heart ; life 13

26 19 119

ferhSfreca bold warrior
ferhSloca heart, secret thoughts 6 13,

33 ; body 19 267
ferian carry, bear ; convey
fering/ journeying
fet v. fot
feta -v. fetian
feter/. fetter, bond
feterian fetter, bind fast
gefetgan v. (ge)fetian
(ge)fetian fetch, take away
feSa troop, band, army
feSe n. walking, movement 13 18, 27 22

1 06

feSegast m. moving spirit
feSemund/. paw, forefoot
feSer/. feather

fettespedig adj. quick-moving, fleet
fettewlg n. .active fighting or fighting on

foot

fexe v. feax
fiell m. death, slaughter

fiellan fell, lay low ; slay

fierd/ army

fierdhengest m. war-horse

fierdhwset adj. bold or active in fight

fierdleoS n. song of battle ; blast of horn

fierdrinc m. warrior

fierdgetrum n. army 19 103 ; formation

of battle, martial array 19 178
fierdwlc n. camp
fierdwlsa army leader
fiergenbeam m. mountain -tree
fiergenstream m. mountain-stream
fierr compar. adv. farther back, earlier

20 35

flf num. five

flfel n.? monster

flfelcynn n. tribe of monsters 18 16 n.

flfta num. fifth

flftig num. fifty

findan 3 find, meet with ; devise, hit

upon 14 430, 468
finger m. finger
finta handle, pretext 12 32 n.
flras m.pl. men
firdhengest v. fierdhengest
firen f. crime, sin ; outrage, deed of

violence ; d.pl. wickedly 11 21
firenllce adv. desperately
firenj»earf/. desperate need
firndseg m. in pi. former, ancient

days

firngear n. ancient year
firngewinn n. ancient struggle
firngewrit n. ancient writing, scripture
first m. space of time, time, period ;

occasion
fisc m. fish
fiSere n. wing
fiSerleas adj. without wings
flgesc n. flesh
flseschama body
flan m. arrow, dart
flanboga bow
fleam, m. fleeing, flight
geflemed v. flleman
fleogan 2 fly
fleon 2 flee, flee from
fleotan 2 move through the water, swim

1*44

fleotend m. seaman, sailor
flett n. floor ; hall
flettrest f. couch on the floor or in the

hall

flettsittend m. sitter in the hall, retainer
flleman put to flight
flies «. fleece

GLOSSARY

2O7

flihte v. flyht

flintgrseg adj. flint-grey

geflit n. contest, rivalry ; on geflit faran

race 14 463
flltan i strive, contend
flod m. water, current, stream, sea ;

flood tide 16 65, 72 ; the Flood 14

611

fiddblac adj. pale in the water
flodegesa terrible flood
flodgrseg adj. grey in flood, foaming
flodweard/I sea-defence, sea-wall
flSdweg m. sea- track 752; road leading

to the sea 19 106
fiodyft/ sea- wave
flor m. floor
flot n. sea

flota seaman, mariner
flothere m. fleet, naval force 4 296
flotweg m. sea-way, sea-journey
flowan red. v. flow
flyge m. flight (of spear)
flygepll m. flying arrow
flyht m. flight, flying
flyhfj v. fleon

fodorwela abundant food 22 164
folc n. people ; host, army
folcland n. land, country
folcmaegen n. host, army
folcrsedenn/ decree, law
folcriht n. popular right, tribal law 14

351 ; people 19 22 n.
folcssel n. dwelling, house 22 5
folcscipe m. service to the people? 22

164

folcstede m. meeting- place ; battlefield
folcswSot m. host, army
folcgetsel n. number, total
folctoga leader, chief
folcwita councillor
foldbUend m. dweller on earth, man
folde wk. f. ground, earth, land
foldweg m. road

folgaS m. body of retainers 9 55 ; em-
ployment, service 3 38 8 9
folgian follow up, pursue 4 332 ; be in

service or employment, take service

4 162

folm/. hand
(ge)f6n red. v. grasp, seize ; accept 4

388 ; fehS . . . t5 succeeds 11 32
for, fore prep, (i) w. d. (a) in front of,

before, (b] on account of, owing to ; (2)

w. a. in place of, for, as 7 21 21 64

etc.
foran adv. in front

forbsernan burn up
forberstan 3 burst, be shattered
forblegan cause to bow, humble 1 48

2 26
forbiernan 3 burn away, be consumed

14367

forborn v. forbiernan
forbugan 2 evade, flee from
ford m. ford
fordrlfan i drive out of one's course,

wreck

foregenga guide
foresnottor adj. very wise
foreweall m. rampart
forgiefan 5 give ; grant, vouchsafe,

bestow
forgieldan 3 pay, repay ; buy off 16

32

forgleman neglect
forgietan 5 forget
forgrindan 3 destroy
forhabban restrain
forhealdan red. v. treat badly, defy
forheard adj. very sharp
forheawan red. v. cut down, slay
forhogode v. forhycgan
forht adj. afraid, frightened
forbtian be afraid
forhtmod adj. afraid, alarmed
forhycgan despise, disdain
forlsedan lead astray, lead to destruction
forlsetan red. v. let, allow ; let go,

abandon
forleosan 2 lose
forma adj. first ; foremost 16 77
formanig adj. very many 16 239
forniman 4 remove, destroy
forsacan 6 w. d. renounce
forscrlfan i proscribe, condemn
forscufan 2 drive off, avert 19 204
forsittan 5 fail, fade 11 44
forspildan ruin
forst m. frost

for stand an 6 guard, defend ; help
forswelgan 3 swallow, swallow up
forsweorcan 3 grow dark
forswerian 6 w. d. forswear, renounce
forteon 2 lead astray
fortyldan seduce
foro1 adv. forward, onward, forth, along,

away ; continually, all the time 1 43

15 20 16 209, 269 19 448 21 252 ;

in succession 4 59 ; time in the future

14 70 ; forS heonon hitherto 19

287 n.

conj. because

208

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

forSgang m. advance

forSgeorn adj. eager to advance

forShere m. advancing army? van? 19
225

forSian achieve, accomplish

for]?olian be without, forego

forjjon adv. therefore ; forjjon )>e
because

for)>rmgan 3 overwhelm

forj>ryccan crush, repress

forSgesceaft/ the future

forSgesIene adj. visible, manifest

forSsIS m. departure

forSspell n. declaration, utterance

forSweg m. onward march, advance ;
departure 19 32 ; death 6 81

forwegan 5 carry off, kill

forwiernan reject, refuse 4 202

forwrecan 5 drive away, banish

forwrltan i cut through

fot m. foot

fotmsel n. foot-mark, foot's length

fraco'5 n. base conduct, treachery

gefrsege n. in phrase mine gefrsege as
I have heard

gefrsege adj. famous 4 55 ; well-known,
notorious 4 311

gefraegen v. fricgan

frset adj. defiant, perverse 12 48

frsetwa f.pL adornments, beauties ;
trappings, armour, gear

frsetwian adorn ; caparison 23 6

fram (i) adv. away 14 136, 299 16 317 ;
(2) prep. w. d. from, away from ; con-
cerning 4 65 14 34, 83, 308

fram adj. vigorous, active, bold ;
valuable 4 21

framcynn n. origin

framllce adv. vigorously

framsTS m. departure

framweard adj. about to depart

franca spear, javelin

frea lord, chief, king ; the Lord

freadryhten m. lord, chieftain

freawine m. dear lord

freawrasen/. splendid chain

freca bold warrior 19 217

frecne (i) adj. dangerous ; fierce, cruel;
terrible; defiant, desperate; (2) adv.
defiantly, desperately 14 613 ; peril-
ously 19 457 ; terribly, with deadly
effect 19 38

frefran comfort

frem(e)de adj. strange, foreign, alien
(ge)fremman perform, effect, achieve,
do, make, commit ; further, aid 5 10 ;

plan 19 146 ; entertain, keep up 9 36 ;

w. d. help 21 128
freo adj. used as n. noble or beloved

child g.pl. 22 123
freobearn n. noble child or son
freobroSor m. noble brother
freed/ peace, good-will, friendship
freogan love 14 444 21 188
freolic adj. noble ; beautiful 21 100
freollce adv. nobly
freom adj. vigorous, active
freomseg m. (noble) kinsman
freond m. friend
freondlaftu/. friendly invitation
freondleas adj. friendless
freondllcor compar. adv. in more friendly

fashion

freondscipe m. friendship
freorig adj. cold
freofto v. friS
fretan 5 devour, destroy
fricgan 5 hear of 1 174 420 19 i
friclan seek, look for
Frleswsel n. slaughter of or by Frisians
frlga/.//. love 3 15
gefrigen v. fricgan
frignan 3 inquire
gefrignan 3 hear, hear of ; hear
fri8 n. peace ; protection
friSian protect 23 40
frifjuburh/i fortified town or castle
friOuwser/ treaty of peace ; covenant
friSuwang m. plain of peace or truce
friSuwebbe wk.f. peace- weaver, lady
frod adj. old ; wise
frodian be wise
frfifor/ comfort, consolation
from v. fram adj.

fruma beginning 20 12 ; chief, lord 1 90
frumbeara n. first-born child or son
frumcynn n. origin
frumsceaft/. origin, beginning; Creation

19 274

frumstaSol m. original position
gefrflnon, gefrttnen v. frignan
frymdig adj. desirous 16 179
frymS/ origin, beginning
frjnd v. freond
fugol m. bird
fugolbana fowler

full n. cup ; hollow, basin 4 432 22 53
full (i) adj. full; (2) adv. fully, quite,

very

fullaest/ help, support
fullsestan help
fultum m. help

GLOSSARY

209

fundian be anxious or eager 12 1 6 22

139 ; be eager or ready to depart

4 197 7 47
furSor compar. adv. further forward,

more in front ; to a greater degree

21 100

furSum adv. first, for the first time
ffls adj. eager, eager to go, hastening
fuslic adj. inspiriting, stirring
fyl v. fiell

fylle, gefylled v. fiellan
fyllo f. abundance, good cheer, feast

14 64, 499
fylstan help
fynd v. feond
fyr n. fire
fyra v. flras

fyrbend m. forged band or fastening
fyrd v. fierd

fyrdraca fire-breathing dragon
fyren adj. fiery 19 120 ; on fire 5 37
fyrene v. firen

fyrgenstream v. fiergenstream
fyrmest supcrl. adj. foremost, first
fyrn- v. firn-
fyrst v. first

fyrwielm m. jet or spurt of flame
fysan hasten, hurry 19 221 20 130 ;

hurl, dart 16 269 ; arouse, make

ready 14 304 19 54 ; inspire 14 492

gad «. lack, want

gsedeling m. attendant, companion

gselsa wantonness, pride

gsers n. grass

gsest v. gast

gsest v. giest 22 114

geestlic adj. appalling, terrible

gafol n. tax, tribute

galan 6 sing

gambe wk. f. tribute

gamen n. amusement, entertainment,

sport, delight ; power of entertaining

or amusing 21 148
gamenwa.8/ pleasant excursion
gamenwudu m. ' wood for entertaining, '

harp

gamol adj. old

gamolfeax adj. grey or white-headed
gan athem. v. go
gegan athem. v. come to pass 13 5 ;

engage in 14 589 ; advance upon,

attack 4 298
gang m. passage, course 14 243 20 41

23 7 ; //. 20 117
gang pst. ind. of gangan 14 494

gangan red. v. go, proceed, march
gegangan red. v. come to pass 13 i,

10 14 204 ; bring to pass 4 83 ; come

by, win 16 59
ganot m. gannet (sea-bird)
gar m. javelin
garbeam m. shaft of javelin
garberend m. warrior
garcene adj. warlike, bold
garcwealm m. slaughter by the spear
garfaru /. moving host of spears 19

343 ; flight of javelins 20 64
garheap m. troop, battalion
garmitting/. ' spear-meeting,' battle
garrses m. 'spear-rush,' attack
garsecg m. high sea, ocean
garwiga warrior
garwudu m. spear

gast m. spirit, soul ; life 22 91 22 45 n.
gastbana destroyer of souls, devil
gastberend m. 'soul-bearer,' mortal
ge conj. and ; ge . . . ge both . . . and

14 543 ! ge swylce yea, also 11 73
ge pron. pi. you
geac m. cuckoo 1 53 9 40
geador adv. together
geaf, geafon v. giefan
gealdor n. incantation, spell, charm

12 6 18 42 ; blast (of trumpet) 4 343
gealdorword n. incantation, magic

formula

gealga gallows, gibbet
gealgtreow n. gallows-tree, gibbet
geap adj. curving, arched 13 33 ;

rounded, convex ? 21 23
geapneb adj. with rounded front (of a

corslet)
geapscipe m. crookedness, cunning

23 ii

g§ar n. year

geara adv. long ago 6 22 14 359 20 127
geard m. dwelling
geardagas m.pl. days of old
gearo adj. ready, prepared
gearobrygd/! quick movement
gearollce adv. fully, clearly
gearowe v. gearo
gearowyrdig adj. ready of speech
gearrlm n. number of years
gearu v. gearo
gear(w)e adv. fully, thoroughly, clearly,

well
gearwian make ready, prepare ; be

ready 23 36
gearwost superl. adv. quite clearly,

with full certainty

210

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

geat n. gate

geatolic adj. splendidly made or arrayed

geatwa///. accoutrements, ornaments,

equipment, armour

gegnpseft1 m. hostile path, way of attack
gegnum adv. straight ahead, forward
gellende v. giellan
gelpan v. gielpan
gen adv. still, yet, as yet
gengan go, proceed
genge adj. prevalent, usual 21 68
geo adv. formerly, of old
geocf. help, consolation, comfort
geocor adj. wretched, pitiable
geofon n. sea, ocean
geofum, geofona v. giefu
geogoS f. youth ; younger warriors 14

483

geogoScnosl n. young family
geogoSfeorh n. period of youth
geogoShad m. youth
geolean n. reward for past service 2 39
geolo adj. yellow
geomann m. man of old 18 42
geomeowle wk. f. old wife or widow

4 330 14 418 18 42
geomor adj. sad, despondent, gloomy
geomorgiedd n. song of sorrow, dirge
geomorlic adj. sad, depressing
geomormod adj. sad of heart, gloomy
geomrian lament, grieve
gQQndprefl. w. a. over, throughout
geondbrgedan spread over, cover
geondferan pass over, travel through
geondhweorfan 3 pass over, travel

through

geondsceawian scan, survey
geond]?encan reflect on, ponder over
geong adj. young
geongra 21 68 v. genge
georn adj. desirous, eager
georne adv. earnestly, eagerly ; zealously,

loyally 19 177 ; clearly 16 84
geornful adj. eager, zealous
geornllce adv. eagerly, zealously
geornost superl. adv. most zealously
geosceaft/ destiny
geotan 2 pour 14 612 ; drain away, fail

21 220
geowine m. friend or lord of earlier

days 7 92
ggr v. gear
gest v. giest
getan v. gletan
giedd n. song, lay ; dirge 4 178 ;

speech 21 221 ; poem 22 225

gieddian make a speech, speak

giefan 5 give

gieffsest adj. abundant 23 25 ; talented,

endowed 21 102
giefl n. morsel, bit of food
giefstol m. gift-throne ; royal bounty 6 44
giefu/ and wk. f. gift ; talent, faculty
gieldan 3 pay ; pay for, recompense
giellan 3 scream 67 7 62 ; whistle

(spear) 1 128 ; creak 22 158 ; roar

19 405 ; twang, buzz 23 25
gielp m. boasting, pride, vainglory

19 370 21 166, 171 ; reputation,
prestige, credit, fame, glory 6 69
11 26 19 430 21 220

gielpan 3 w. g. boast

gielphlaeden adj. famous

gielpplega ' glory-sport,' battle

gielpword n. boastful word

gleman w. g. pay heed, care or trouble

about
gierdwlte n. punishment with rod,

chastisement
(ge)gierwan prepare, fit out 4 38 14 405,

568 ; adorn 2 39 14 55, 513, 549 ;

train, foster 13 8
giest m. stranger, visitor, guest ; visitant,

creature 14 280
glet adv. still, yet, as yet
gleta v. glet

gietan slay, destroy 4 339 n.
gif conj. if
gife 10 i v. giefan
gife 21 49 v. giefu
gif en v. geofon 14 612
gifena v. giefu
gifefte adj. given, granted
giffsest v. gieffsest
gif re adj. greedy, eager ; superl. 4 183

20 96

glgant m. giant
gimm m. gem, jewel

ginn adj. spacious, extensive

gloce v. geoc

giofan v. giefan 4 371

giomor- v. geomor-

giong v. geong

gegirwan, gegiredan v. gierwan

glsl m. hostage

gist v. giest

git pron. you two, both of you

gltsian be greedy, covet

gladian glitter, glisten

glaed adj. prosperous, happy

glsed n. joyousness 13 68

glsedlic adj. shining, goodly 1 66

GLOSSARY

21 I

glsem m. brightness, splendour

gleaw adj. often w. g. wise, shrewd,

clever, skilled
gled/. live coal, flame
glengan adorn
gleo- v. gllw-
glldan i glide
glisian glisten 23 35
gllw n. music, melody 23 3
gllwbeam m. 'music-wood,' harp 11 78

21 116

gllwdsed f. amusing action, entertain-
ment 21 149

gllwmann m. gleeman, minstrel 1 136
gllwstsef m. song ? joy ? 6 52
glof/. glove

gnorn adj. sorrowful, sad supcrl. 19 370
gnornian grieve, be sorrowful
God m. God
god adj. good, noble ; generous, liberal

1 114 7 40 14 461
god n. good, goodness ; good thing,

blessing, generosity, liberality 1 89 4

20, 112
gddian be prosperous ; godade wealth

came 23 32

godwebb n. fine cloth or tissue
gold n. gold

goldgiefa 'gold-giver,' lord, chief
goldhilted adj. with golden or gilded hilt
goldhladen adj. adorned with gold
goldhord m. treasury, store
golduroden adj. adorned with gold
goldsele m. hall where gold is given
goldsmiSu/i goldsmith's work or art
goldwine m. 'gold-friend,' lord, king
grsedig adj. greedy
grsef n. grave
grseg adj. grey
grseghama adj. grey-coated
grsegmsel adj. with (steel- )grey blade?

14 377

graes v. gsers
gram adj. fierce, hostile
gramhygdig adj. bad-tempered, un-

amiable 11 26
grap/ grasp, clutch
gremian enrage, provoke
grene adj. green
greot n. earth, ground
gretan greet, welcome ; touch, strike

4 125 21 115; face,* enter upon 19

44 ; address 21 194 ; pierce, penetrate

14 185
grlmhelm m. helmet with front-plate or

visor

grimm adj. fierce, savage ; stern, pitiless

gegrind n. grinding together, clash

grindan 3 grind 22 158 ; sharpen 16 109

gripe m. grip, grasp ; attack

gri8 n. peace, truce

grand m. plain, land ; bottom, depths

grundffls adj. hastening to perdition

grundwang m. ground, position

gryre m. horror, terror

gryrefag adj. with horrible markings

gryregeatwa f.pl. formidable accoutre-
ments or arms

gryregiest m. horrible visitant

gryreleotJ n. terrible cry or sound

gryrelic adj. terrible, awe-inspiring

gryreslS m. terrible adventure

guldan v. gieldan

guma man, warrior

gum cyst f. virtue, excellence

gumfeSa troop, company

gummann m. man, warrior

gumstol m. throne, royal seat

gumj>egn m. man

gflS/. battle, fight ; warlike spirit 14 492

gflSbill n. sword

gflSbyrne wk. f. corslet

guScyning m. warlike king

gflScyst/ war-band, troop

gfl.Sdea'3 m. death in battle

gflSfreminend m. warrior

gQShafoc m. war-hawk, eagle

gttoTielm m. battle-helmet

gilQhorn n. war-horn, trumpet

gttShreo adj. fierce in battle

gtlShreS m. glory in war

gtWJhring m. ' battle-ring, ' spiral (of
smoke)

gtlSmierce m.pl. hostile borderers? 19

59

gflSgemot n. conflict, battle
gflSplega 'battle-play,' fighting
guorses m. attack, fight
gttSreouw v. gUShreo
gftSrinc m. warrior
gftSsearo n. war-gear, armour
gfl8]7reat m. war-band, troop
gflSweard m. 'war-defender,' king
gflftwudu m. spear or shield
gyd v. giedd
gyddode v. gieddian
gyf v. gif
gyfan v. giefan
gyfetJe v. gifeSe
gyldan v. gieldan
gylden adj. of gold, golden, gilded
gylleS v. giellan

212

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

gylp v. gielp

gyman v. gleman

gyrdan gird (with sword) 5 14

gyrdwlte v. gierdwlte

gegyrede v. gierwan'

gyrn n. trouble, worry 22 10

gyrnwracu/. revenge, vengeance

gegyrwed v. gierwan

gysl v. glsl

gystas v. giest

gyt v. glet

gytsaS v. gltsian

habban have, hold

had m. position, office 23 15 ; form,

shape 14 550 22 12 ; fashion, manner?

20 107 n.
hsef «. sea
hsefeces T'. hafoc
haeft w. captivity 19 470 20 47 ; captive,

prisoner 14 173

haeftmece m. long-handled sword
hseftnled/ close captivity
haegl v. hagol
hsegsteald v. hagosteald
haele m. man, warrior
hselend m. Saviour
haeleS m. man, warrior
hailo / prosperity, good fortune 14

101

hser n. hair
haarfest m. autumn
hsergtrafum v. heargtraef
hserran v. hearra
hses/ command
hse»t/. violence, fury
hfflS n. waste ground, heath
hseSen <z<a^'. heathen
haaSstapa ' heath-ranger* ; stag 14 229;

wolf 13 13
hsewen adj. blue
hafa, hafu v. habban
hafela head

hafenian swing, brandish
hafoc m. hawk
haga stockade, fort
hagol m. hail
hagolfaru/ hailstorm
hagosteald m. young retainer, warrior
hal adj. whole, uninjured
halga v. halig
halig adj. holy
hals v. heals

ham m. homestead, home, house
hamleas adj. homeless
ham or m. hammer

hamweorSung/ ornament or distinction

for a home
hand f. hand ; side, direction 16 112

18 60

handbana slayer
handlean v. andlean
handlocen adj. linked or fastened to-
gether by hand

handgemot n. ' hand-meeting, ' fight
handplega 'hand-play,1 fighting
handrof adj. strong or brave in fight
handgestealla comrade, retainer
hand(ge)weorc n. handiwork
handgewriSen adj. twisted by hand
gehange adj. situated, conditioned? 23

42

hangian hang (intrans.)
har adj. light-grey, whitish ; grey-headed
haso adj. light brownish grey, tawny
hasopada the grey-coated one, eagle
haswe v. haso
hat adj. hot, burning, fiery ; compar.

hatran warmer, more invigorating 7

64

hat «. heat 14 348 19 78
hatan red. v. (a) command, order, (3)

call, namefreg. in p.p.
gehatan red. v. promise ; threaten 4 336
hatheort adj. hot-tempered, irascible
hatian hate

hatte pass, of hatan be called or named
hatwende adj. hot, sultry
he pron. he ; it
hea v. heah
heaburh v. heahburg
heaf m. lamentation
heafde v. heafod
heafo v. hsef
heafoc v. hafoc
heafod n. head

heafodbeorg/. protection of the head
heafodmseg m. near relation
heafodslen/. eyes or face 13 36
heafola -'. hafela
heah (i) adj. high; grand, noble 4 57

22 10 23 15 ; deep 6 82 7 34 21 263 ;

(2) adv. high 4 48
heahburg/ chief town
heahcrseft m. high or noble skill
heahcyning m. over-king, suzerain
hSahfaeder m. patriarch
heahfsest adj. supreme
heahfrea supreme lord
heahhsef n. deep sea
heahlufe wk. f. perfect love
heahsetl n. high seat, throne

GLOSSARY

213

heahtimber n. high building

heahbegnung/ high service

heahSu v. hlehSo

heahbungen adj. distinguished, noble

heahum v. heah

(ge)healdan red. v. hold, hold fast, hold

to, keep, preserve, guard, maintain ;

possess, occupy ; observe
healf/ side ; be healfe beside
healf adj. half 4 147
heallce adv. in a high degree
heall/. hall

heallgamen n. hall-mirth, entertainment
heallbegn m. hall-thane, official
heals m. neck

healsbeag m. necklace, collar
healsgebedda m.f. bed-fellow, spouse
healsweorSung/ neck-ornament, neck-
lace, collar
bean 13 21 v. heah
bean adj. lowly, humble 22 84, 167,

191 ; depressed, despondent 6 23 ;

abased, humiliated 20 52
beanlic adj. humiliating, ignominious
heanne 23 15 v. heah
heanspedigra compar. adj. more lowly,

less successful 21 92
heap m. band, company
heard adj. hard, tough, firm ; of swords

sharp, keen ; of warriors bold, strong,

fierce; of fighting etc. stern, bitter,

fierce ; used absol. ? hard lot 8 15 n.
hearde adv. strongly, vigorously 14 277 ;

deeply, sorely 14 421
heardhycgend adj. strong or bold of

purpose
heardllce adv. strenuously, boldly 16

261 ; cruelly, bitterly, 20 47
heardsselig adj. unlucky, unhappy
heardsweord n. sharp sword
hearg m. heathen temple 18 51
heargtraef n. heathen temple 18 27
bearm m. affliction, grief
hearmdseg m. day of grief
hearmscaSa dangerous foe
hearpe wk. f. harp
bearra lord, chief 16 204
heaSorian confine
heaSobyrae wk. f. corslet
heaftodeor adj. brave in battle
heaSofyr n. fire
heaSogeong adj. young in war
heaSogrimm adj. fierce in fight or attack
heaSolac n. ' battle-sport,' fighting
heaSolind / ' battle-linden ' (wood),

shield

keaSolISend m. warlike seamen, sea-
borne warriors

heaSor&s m. 'battle-rush,' onslaught,
attack

heaSorinc m. warrior

heaSorof adj. bold or brave in war

heaSosteap adj. towering, lofty

heaSoswat m. blood shed in battle

heaSosweng m. (sword)stroke

heaSotorht adj. ' battle-clear,' ringing
and defiant

heaSowsed/ ' battle-dress,' armour

heaSowerig adj. weary of fighting,
exhausted

heaSowielm m. 'battle-boiling,' hostile
thought or impulse 19 148

heaum v. heah

heawan red. v. cut, cut down

hebeu 17 6 v. heofon

hebban 6 raise, lift

hcdan w. g. pay attention to, heed 14
392 19 470

gehidde v. gehegan 14 7

hefig adj. heavy ; severe

gehegan venture on, risk

heht -'. hatan

bell/ hell

hellbend m.f. hell-bond, captivity in hell

hellscaSa hellish-destroyer, fiend

hell ware///, denizens of hell, fiends

helm m. covering, canopy 22 79 ; tree-
top 22 10 ; helmet freq. ; protector,
lord, king 4 400 11 100 14 400 18
34 20 61

help/, help

helpan 3 w. g. or d. help

belpend m. helper

gehende adj. close by, near 16 294

hengest m. horse, steed

heo pron. she

Mo /TO*. =hle they 19 146

heofan 2 lament, grieve 14 410

heofon m. sky, heavens, heaven

heofonbeacen n. beacon or sign in the sky

heofoncandel / heavenly candle, light
in the sky

heofoncol n. 'heaven-coal,' heat of the
sun pi. 19 71

heofonrlce n. kingdom of heaven

heofontorht adj. heavenly bright

heolfor n. blood

heolstor m. covering 6 23 ; covering of
night, darkness 14 137 19 115

heonan adv. hence ; forS heonan hither-
to 19 287 n.

heora v. hira

214

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

heorot m. hart, stag 14 230 ; in Beo.
Heorot, name of Hrothgar s hall

heorra v. hearra

geheort adj. cheerful, hearty 21 265

heorte wk. f. heart, temper

heoru v. hlere

heorudrync m. ' sword-drink, ' sword-
blow 4 274 n.

heorufseSm m. hostile grasp, fighting

heoruhociht adj. hooked, barbed

heorusierce wk. f. corslet

heoruswealwe wk. f. 'sword-swallow,'
hawk

heoruword n. cutting word, bitter speech

heoruwulf m. ' sword - wolf, ' fierce
warrior

heorSgeneat m. ' hearth -sharer,' re-
tainer

heorSwerod n. 'hearth- troop,' body of
retainers

heowun v. keawan

her adv. here

hercyme nt. coming hither, advent

here m. army, host

herebleme wk. f. trumpet

hereblSat? adj. cowardly

herecyst/i picked troop, battalion

herefllema fugitive from army, deserter

herefugol m. 'army-bird,' carrion-bird

heregeatwa f.pl. war - trappings,
weapons, armour etc.

heregrlma helmet

herelaf /. remnant of an army

herenIS m. hostility

herepad/I ' army-coat, ' corslet

herereaf n. 'army-spoils,' booty

heresceorp n. 'army-dress,' armour

kerestrael m. arrow

herestrset/. high-road

heretoga army-leader, captain

herej>r§at m. company, troop, army

herewlsa army-leader, captain

herewop m. shouting or clamour of an
army

hergan, herigean, herge v. herian

herge, herges, heriges v. here

hergum 18 51 v. hearg

herian praise

het v. hatan

hete m. hate, hatred

hettend m. enemy

hicgan v. hycgan

gehlded v. hydan

hider adv. hither

hie, hi pron. they, them ; her, it

hlehSo/. height 20 72

hlenan bring down, lay low 16 324 ;

oppress 20 47 ; humiliate 16 180
hlenSo f. humiliation, ignominy 14 423

19 323
(ge)hleran hear ; w. d. obey 4 10 20

82 24 14, 32
hierde m. shepherd, guardian, guard ;

lord ; sparing, economical 21 221
hierdau make bold, encourage 13 74
hlere adj. safe from evil spirits, ' healthy '

14 233

hiertan hearten, embolden 14 336
hierwan despise, neglect 19 307
hig v. hie 4 145 5 42
hige v. hyge
hild/. war, battle
hild v. hyld(o) 19 455
hildebill n. sword

hildeblac adj. 'battle-pale,' deadly pale
hildebord «. shield
hildebyrne wk. f. corslet
hildecealla ' battle-shouter, ' herald
hildecyst/". 'battle-excellence,' bravery
hildedeor adj. brave in battle
hildefrofor/. 'battle-comfort,' sword
hildegeatwa f.pl. 'battle-trapping,' suit

of armour
hildegiecel m. ' battle-icicle ' ; d.pl.

like icicles 14 600
hildegrap/ ' battle-grip,' grasp 14 573 ;

hostile clutch 14 573
hildehlemm m. shock of battle
hildeleoma 'battle-light,' flash of fire 14

326 ; sword 4 203
hildemsecg m. warrior
hildepll m. ' battle-spike,' sharp tooth
hilderand m. shield
hilderinc m. warrior
hildesetl n. war-seat, saddle
hildespell n. tidings of battle
hildeswatw. 'battle-moisture,1 offensive

vapour

hildewsepen n. weapon
hildewlsa war-leader, captain
hildfreca bold fighter, champion
hildfruma war -chief, leader
hilt/, hilt

hiltecumbor n. ' staff-banner, ' standard
hilted having a hilt, hiked
"him pron. d.s. and pi. him, it; them
hindan adv. from behind
hindema superl. adj. last, latest
hinder-hoc m. ' hook from behind,' trap,

ambush

hine a.s. of he him, it ; freq. reflex.
hinffts adj. anxious to depart

GLOSSARY

215

hingang m. going hence, death 17 12

hiniongae v. hingang

hinsIS m. journey hence, death

hlo v. heo

hlofende v. heofan

hiora v. hira

hioro- v. heoru-

hira/>wz. of them, their

hire pron . g. d. s. of heo

hlredmann m. household retainer

his g. s. of he or hit

\a\\ipron. it

hlw n. hue, colour

(ge)hladan 6 load, pile up 4 85 22 80,
143 ; amass 20 67

hlseder/. ladder

hlaest n. load, burden

hlsew m. burial-mound, barrow

hlaford m. master, lord, chief, king

hlafordleas adj. lordless

hlaw v. hlsew

hleahtor m. laughter

hleahtorsmiS m. ' laughter-smith, 'enter-
tainer, minstrel, etc.

hleapan red. v. leap, jump ; gallop

gehleapan red. v. leap upon 16 189

hlehhan v. hliehhan

hlence wk. f. link ; pi. corslet

hleo(w) n. covering, cover 19 79 ; pro-
tection, protector freq.

hleoburg/. chief town

hleodryhten m. protecting lord

hleomseg m. protecting kinsman

hleonian v. hlinian

hleor n. cheek

hleotan 2 obtain by lot, receive as share,

get

hleoSor n. sound, voice, song
hleoSrian speak
hliehhan 6 laugh
hllfian tower 23 30 ; hang high 19 89 ;

stick out, stick up 22 108
hlimman resound, roar, rattle
hlin v. hlynn 22 7
hlin m. maple? cf. Russ. klen 22 220
hlinc m. sand-hill, ridge
hlinian lean 14 254
hllsa fame, ambition, vainglory
hliS n. hill-side, cliff
hlodun v. hladan
hloh v. hliehhan
hloSgecrod n. 'massed troop,' mass of

clouds

hlfld adj. loud
hlude adv. loudly
gehlyn «. loud sound, din 5 29

hlynn m. loud noise, din

hlynnan, hlynian resound, re-echo,

roar, rattle

hlynsian resound, echo
hlystan listen
hnsegan bring low, humble
hnlgan i sink, come down
hnltan i knock together, collide
hof n. dwelling, apartment
hof v. hebban
hogode v. hycgan
hoh m. heel ; on hogum by the heels,

from behind 19 414
gehola protector 6 31
hold adj. gracious, kind ; loyal, faithful
holdllce adv. loyally
holen m. holly 22 221
holinga adv. in vain, for nothing
holm m. sea, ocean
holmclif n. sea-cliff
holmhlio1 n. sea-cliff
liolmig adj. of the sea 19 118
holmweall m. sea-wall, wall of piled-up

water

holt n. wood, forest
holtwudu m. wood, forest
hopgehnast n. surge of waves in a cove

or cleft

hord n. m. treasure-hoard
hordcofa ' treasure-chamber,' secret

thoughts

hordmaSm m. treasure
hordweard m. guardian of treasure

(dragon) 14 297, 336 ; lord, chief 19

35. 427
hordwierSe adj. worth hoarding up 11

60
horn m. horn, antler 14 230 ; peak of

gable 61,4; war-horn, trumpet 4

342 14 262 19 192
hornssel n. gabled hall 22 23
hors n. horse

horse adj. wise, shrewd, clever
hoSma darkness
hrsed adj. quick, hasty
hraedllce adv. quickly, speedily
hrsedtsefle adj. quick at draughts or

chess

hrssdwyrde adj. quick or hasty of speech
hrsefn m. raven
hrsegl n. (war)dress, corslet
hrseSe 14 276 v. hraSe
hrsew n. corpse
hranfisc m. whale
hranrad/. ' whale-road," sea 4 10
hraSe adv. quickly, soon

2l6

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

hraSor compar. adv. more quickly

nraw v. hrsew

hream m. shouting, clamour

hreas v. hreosan

hreddan rescue

hrefan roof, cover

hrefn v. hraefn

hreman exult, boast

hremig adj. exulting 4 254, 279 15 59

hremmas v. hraefn

hreo 6 16 v. hreow

hreodan 2 load, adorn 14 507

hreo(h) adj. violent, stormy 6 105 13 15

14 50 ; agitated, fierce 14 324
hreoponz'. hropan
hreosan 2 fall, drop ; collapse
hreow adj. sad
hreran stir up, agitate, shake
hreS m. victory, glory
hreSan exult, triumph
hreSeadig adj. glorious, successful 21 8,

103

hreSer m. vital part 11 22 14 336, 573
18 70 ; bosom, heart, mind, spirit
freq.

hreSergleaw adj. prudent, wise
hreSerloca bosom, breast
hretteigor m. victory
hrlm m. hoar-frost, rime, ice
hrlmceald adj. ice-cold
hrlmgiecel m. icicle
hrlmig frosty, icy 21 6
hrlnan i touch 14 104 18 43 22 192,
202 ; hurt 4 375 ; seize 19 414 22 132
hring m. ring, ring-ornament, link, etc.
hringan ring, jingle
hringboga 'coil-bender,' dragon
hringed adj. made of links 14 541 ;

gnarled, twisted 14 224
hringedstefna boat with curving prow
hringlren n. steel links or rings (of

corslet)
hringloca ' ring-enclosure,' corslet

hringmsel n. sword with ringlike pattern

hringsele m. 'ring-hall,' hall where
rings are distributed

hringbegu/ receiving of rings

hrlsil m. shuttle

hrltJ/ driving snow 6 102

hrKJig adj. clogged with snowdrifts

hroden v. hreodan

hrof m. roof; top, dome 14 515

hronfixas v. hranfisc

hropan red. v. scream, howl

hror adj. vigorous, active

hrSSor m. joy, pleasure

hrung/. beam, rail, pole 22 143

hruron v. hreosan

hruse wk. f. earth, ground

hrutan 2 whirr, rattle

hrycg m. back

hryre m. fall ; death, destruction

hrySge v. hrlSig

hfl adv. con/, how

huilpan v. hwilpe

hund m. hound, dog

hund num. hundred

hunger m. hunger, famine

huntoS m. hunting

hupseax n. dagger

hflru adv. at all events, at any rate, at
least, surely, indeed

htls ». house

hwa, hwset (i) interrog. pron. who,
what; (2) indef. pron. someone, some-
thing ; anyone, anything 4 70 16 71
21 243 ; a certain one 16 2

gehwa/r0«. each ; freq. w. g. of sb.

hwael m. whale

hwselweg m. ' whale-path,' sea

hwaene v. hwa

hwaanne v. hwonne

hwser adv. conj. where

gehwier adv. everywhere

hwaes g. of hwa, hwaet ; to hwaes to
what side 19 192

hwset adj. enterprising, keen, bold

hwaet interj. lo ! oh ! ah ! listen !

hwaeSer (i) pron. which (of two) ; (2)
conj. whether

gehwaeSer pron. each (of two), both ;
either 14 86

hwaeS(e)re adv. nevertheless, however

hwane a. of hwa

hwate v. hwaet adj.

hwealf/ vault, dome

hwearfian turn, wheel 19 159 ; change
23 36

hwearflic adj. succeeding one another?

5 35 *.
hwelc (i) interrog. pron. which, what ;

(2) indef. pron. any 4 164 ; swa

hwylcum whomsoever 18 47
gehwelc /?wz. each

hwelp m. young (of animal), child 10 16
hwene adv. somewhat, a little
hweop v. hwopan

gehweorf adj. versatile, smart 21 134
hweorfan 3 turn, return, go ; indefinite

motion move, move about, roam,

range
gehweorfan 3 pass, come 4 434 14 606

GLOSSARY

217

hwergen adv. elles hwergen elsewhere

14 333

hwettan prompt, urge on 7 63 12 1 8
h wider adv. conj. whither
hwierfan turn, twist 22 101 ; move

about 18 10
hwll f. space of time, while ; ba hwlle

be as long as ; hwllum at times
gehwilc v. gehwelc
hwilpe wk. f. sea-bird
hwlnan i whine, whirr
hwlt adj. white
hwon inst. of hwa ; t5 hwon for what

end 7 43

hwon adv. a few, but few 7 28
gehwone v. gehwa
hwonne conj. when, whenever 16 62 19

387 ; until 19 250 22 114
hwopan red. v. threaten
hworfan v. hweorfan
hwyder v. hwider
hwylc v. hwelc
hwyrfeS v. hwierfan
hwyrft m. (room to) turn, course 19 210
hwyrftweg m. way of escape
hy v. hie
hycgan reflect, ponder, think, consider ;

turn one's thoughts to, attend to ;

think out, plan, plot
hydan hide

gehygd/.«. thought, mind
hyge m. mind, thought ; mood ; inclina-
tion ; purpose, aim, resolve
hygecrseftig adj. clever, skilled
hygedryht MS. reading 23 21 perhaps

error for hlwgedryht band of retainers
hygegal adj. wanton, abandoned
hygegar m. ' mind-dart,' malicious trick

1234

hygegeomor adj. gloomy, despondent
hygebanc m. thought
hygebyhtig adj. strong of purpose
hyht m.f. joyful hope
hyhtgiefu/ joyful gift
hyhtlic adj. causing joy, glorious
hyld(o)/. favour, protection ; loyalty
hyll m.f. hill
hynan v. hlenan
hyne v. hine
hynSo v . hlenSo
hyra v. hira
hyran v. hleran
hyrde v. hierde
gehyrdeS v. hierdan 13 74
gehyrdon v. hierwan 19 307
hyre v. hire

hyrnednebba ' with horny beak,' raven

hyrst/ ornament ; trappings, armour

(ge)hyrstan adorn, equip

hyrte v. hiertan

hyse m. young fighting man, warrior

hyt v. hit

hy5/. landing-place

\Qpron. I

icge ? 4 167 n.

Idel adj. deserted, empty

ides/", lady ; woman ; female

Idlian be neglected, come to nothing

lecan add to, increase 21 260

leg/ island 10 4, 6

legland n. island 10 5 15 66

legstream m. sea-waters, sea 14 79

ieldan delay 14 121

ielde m.pl. men

ield(o) /. old age 5 22 7 70, 91 11 13,

43 13 60 21 50 21 268 n.
ieldra compar. of eald senior, chief 19

141 ; pi. ieldran elders, parents 21

190

ielfetu/ swan 7 19
ierfe n. inheritance, heritage 18 41
ierfeweard m. heir 11 91 19 142
iergS(o)/ slackness, cowardice 16 6
iermS(o)/ misery, hardship 8 3 19 265

20 58
ierre (i) n. anger, wrata ; (2) angry,

furious

ierremod adj. angry
ierringa adv. angrily 4 363 19 414
le'San lay waste, devastate
leSe adj. easy 14 329
leSest superl. adv. most easily
leSfynde adj. easily found, noticeable 19

466
leftgeslene adj. easily seen, noticeable

4 170 14 540
lewau show, exhibit, manifest 4 4, 18 11

15 20 32 22 49, 226
Ige v. leg
Igland v . legland
ilca adj. same 11 54
in (i) adv. in, inside ; (2) prep. w. d. or

a. in ; into ; for 21 156
inc d. or a. of git
incer^-. of git
indryhten adj. noble
indryhto/. noble trait
infrod adj. very wise or old
inge? 19 190 «.
ingefolc «. inhabitant
ingemynd n.f. remembrance

2l8

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

inlende adj. from inland, from the natives
innan, inne (i) adv. inside, within; (2)

prep. w. d. 21 43

inngesteald n. household furniture
InnoS m. interior 22 170
innwerod n. palace - guard, body of

retainers

ingejjanc n.m. secret thoughts
inwidda treacherous man, deceitful foe
inwitfeng m. treacherous grasp
inwitflan m. ' treacherous arrow, ' slander
inwitgast m. treacherous or malicious

spirit

inwitnIS m. treacherous attack
inwitscear m. treacherous attack
inwitsearo n. treachery, malice
inwitsorg/ secret care or sorrow
inwit)?anc m. treacherous intent
iomgowle v. geomeowle
Iren (i) n. steel blade, sword; (2) adj.

iron, steel 14 586

Irenbend m.f. iron band or clamp
Irenbyrne wk. f. iron corslet
Irenheard adj. of hard iron
Irenhere m. iron-armed troop 19 348
Irenjjreat m. iron-clad troop
is 3 s. prs. ind. is
Is n. ice 14 602
Isgebind n. ice-bond
Isceald adj. ice-cold
Isern- v. Iren-
Isig adj. icy, ice-covered
IsigfeSera adj. with Ice-caked feathers
ifl v. ge5

ludisc of Judah 19 312
iulean v. geoleau
iflmonna v. geomann
Iw m. yew

lac/ gift 4 43 10 i

gelac n. regular movement, tossing 7 35

8 7 1* 5. 25

lacan red. v. fly

lad/, journey, voyage 9 42 14 71 23 14
gelad n. road, track, course 14 249 19

58- 3*3
(ge)lsedan lead, bring

laeg, Isege v. licgan
Isendagas m.pl. fleeting days
Isene adj. transitory, 'fleeting, perishable
Iseran teach, train, instruct
Isergedefe adj. fit to be studied, appro-
priate

m. ? border ? strap ? 16 284 n. ,
19 239
v. lesan

Ises adv. less, fewer ; )>y Ises conj. lest
Isesest superl. adj. least 4 270
Isessa compar. adj. less, smaller
Isestan follow 19 308
(ge)lsestan w. a. carry out, perform ; w. d.

help 4 24 14 194 16 ii 19 244
Isetan red. v. let, allow ; let go, hurl 12 34
Isethygdig adj. slow-witted 21 76
laf / what is left, remnant, survivor 4

335 14 428 15 54 ; to lafe surviving

19424; result 14 517 15 6 ; heirloom,

esp. sword freq.
lagon v. licgan
lagu m. sea, waters
gelagu n.pl. expanse 7 64
lagufaeSm m. embrace of waters
lagufldd m. sea, ocean
lagulad/ sea-track, sea
lagustream m. waters, sea
lah v. leon

land n. land, country ; ground
landbuend m. inhabitant, man
landfruma lord, king
landmann m. native
landriht n. privilege connected with land

19 354 ; title to land, grant 3 40
landstede m. region, place
lang adj. long, long-lasting ; tall 16 273
gelang adj. dependent (on) 8 45
lange adv. for a long time
langian long, yearn 8 14
langoS m. longing, heart-sickness 838

4L 53

langgestr§on «. long possessed treasure

langsum adj. lasting, enduring

langung/ longing, heart-sickness

lar /. teaching, instruction, counsel ;
learning, study 20 107 21 161, 240

larcwide m. precept, advice

lareow m. teacher

last m. footstep, track 7 15 14 241 22
190 ; on laste surviving 6 97 ; on last
following, in the footsteps, in pursuit

lastweard m. pursuer

lastword n. surviving speech, memorial

latteow m. guide, leader

laS adj. hateful, repulsive, distasteful,
unwelcome ; hating, hostile ; freq. used
absol. = foe ; compar. laSre less pleas-
ing 16 50

gelaS m. foeman 19 206

laSbite m. wound

laolic adj. hateful, abominable

laSslS m. hated journey

laSgeteona foe

laSgewinna foe

GLOSSARY

219

leaf n. leaf

lean n. payment, reward, requital
lean 6 blame 14 460
leas adj. w. g. lacking, without, destitute
leax m. salmon

lecgan lay, place ; on last legdon pur-
sued 15 22

lef adj. infirm, weak 13 1 8
leg v. lleg

leger n. lying-place, tomb
lencten m. spring-time
leng compar. adv. longer
lengan remain, last 1 99 ; trans, prolong

23 12

lengest superl. adv. longest
leod m. chief, king 4 24 5 25 14 271,

294, 346, 487 19 277
leodan 2 grow up 13 6
leodbealo n. injury to the people 4 106
leodcyning m. king
leode f.pl. people, men, countrymen

freq.

leodfruma leader, king
leodgeard m. dwelling of men
leodhata persecutor of the people, tyrant
leodhryre m. fall of a prince or king
leodinaegen n. host, army
leodscaru/. nation
leodscaSa enemy or destroyer of the

people
leodscipe m. people, community 14 554 ;

host, multitude 19 244
Igodweras m.pl. men
iSodwerod n. army
l§of adj. dear, beloved
leof ast superl. of l§of
leofaS v. libban
leoflic adj. amiable, beloved
leofwende adj. amiable
leoht adj. agile, nimble 21 150 ; ready 1

72 ; gentle, kindly? 21 271
iSoht (i) n. light, brightness ; (2) bright,

brilliant ; glorious, illustrious 20 107 n.
leohtbaire adj. bright, splendid
leohtian give light

leoma light, ray, luminary ; eye 13 17
leomu v. lim
leon i lend 14 583
leornian study
I§o8 n. song

l§oScrsBftig adj. skilled in song
leoSode v. llSian
leoSu- v. liCu-
leoSu v. liS
lesan 5 pick, cull 20 99
let v. l£etan

(ge)lettan hinder

libban live ; be him lif(i)gendum in his

lifetime
lie n. body
gellc adj. like, resembling 14 109, 602

20 132

gellce adv. alike 20 66

licgan 5 lie, be lying, lie dead ; slacken,

flag 14 526 ; grow calm 14 414
llchama body
llcsar n. wound

llcsierce wk.f. 'body-shirt,' corslet 14 52
llcwund/. wound
lid n. ship
geliden v. USan
lidmann m. seaman, Dane
gellefan believe ; trust in ; entrust 19

442

lleg m.n. flame
llegfyr n. flaming fire
llegyOy. -wave of flame
llesan set free, release
llexan shine, glitter
llf n. life

gellfaS v. gellefan
llfdagas m.pl. days of life, life
llfgedal n. parting from life, death
llffsest adj. living
Hffrga lord of life, God
lif(i)gende pres. p. of libban
llfgesceaft/. course of life, destiny
llfwynn/. joy of life
llg v. lleg

ligetorne v. lygetorn
ligeS v. licgan
ligge v. lleg
lihtan alight 16 23
lim n. limb 2 209 13 5 ; branch 18 9

23 8

gelimpan 3 come to pass, be realized
lindy^ shield of lime-tree wood, shield
lindhsebbend m. 'shield-holder,' warrior
lindplega ' play of shields, ' battle
lindwiga warrior
linnan 3 desist, part (from)
lis*/. kindness, favour 19 271 ; happi-

dess, comfort 23 8, 12
list m.f. cunning, trick, device 14 163

21 116

listhendig adj. with clever hands,

skilled, apt
lift n. joint
118 v. licgan
HSan i depart
USe adj. gentle, gracious ; superl. 14

450

22O

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

Hffian be kind or gracious 23 40
liSucraeft m. bodily skill or agility 20

112 21 95

li<5ufsest adj. firm, strong 21 161 ».
liSuwac c^'. supple of limb 21 150
llzan -v. llexan
locc m. lock, hair 19 120
locen/./. 0/"lucan closed, linked 4 394
locian look, gaze
geloden v. leodan
lof n. praise, fame, glory
lofdaed/. praiseworthy or glorious deed
lofgeorn adj. desirous of praise or good

report

lofsaug m. song of praise, hymn
gelonie adv. frequently
long- v. lang-

losian vanish, disappear ; escape
lucan 2 close, shut ; pst. barred the

way 16 66
lufu/. (ivk.) love
lungre adv. quickly, soon
lunnon v. liunan
lust m. desire ; d.pl. eagerly, joyfully

9 38 20 112 ; delightfully 23 12 ; on

lust gladly 13 76 14 480
gelyfde v. gellefan
\yi\if.m. air, atmosphere ; sky
lyftedor m. air - barrier, air - gate 19

251 n.
lyfthehn m. 'air-cover,' atmosphere 21

46 ; mist? 19 60
lyftscaSa aerial foe (raven)
lyftswift adj. darting through the air
lyftweg m. course through the air
lyftwundor tn. marvel in the air or sky
lyge m. falsehood, lie 21 214
lygetorn m. unreal, i.e. causeless,

anger 4 103
lysan v. llesan
lyt adv. freq. w. g. but little, but few ;

often = no\. at all

lytel adj. small, little, only a little
lytelhygdig adj. fainthearted
lytigian practise deceit 16 86
lytlian grow less

ma compar. adv. freq. w. g. more

madma v. ma'Sm

gemaec adj. suitable, congenial

msecg man, warrior

msecti v. miht

raseg v. magan

mseg" m. kinsman, near relative ; son ;

brother 4 315, 381 ; nephew 14 119,

140, 195 ; grandson 4 121

msegburg / family, household 22 124;

hall, castle 13 62 ; tribe 19 352, 360 ;

army 19 55 n.

msegen n. strength, power ; force, army
msegencyning m. mighty king (God)
maegendaed/. act requiring^power, great

action

maegeneacen adj. mighty
msegenfultum m. powerful help
maegenheap m. troop, battalion
msegenian grow strong, gain strength

23 33

msegenrof adj. very strong, mighty

maegenstrengo /. strength, great force

msegenjjreat m. troop, company

msegenjjrymm m. mighty power

maegenwlsa army-leader

msegnade v. msegenian

msego1/ tribe, clan, nation

maegwine m. dear kinsman, kinsman

msel n. gen. in pi. definite time, occa-
sion, season

(ge)mselan speak

msenan make public ; proclaim 1 55
4 209 9 17 14 455 ; mourn publicly
14 417, 439 ; inaugurate 4 127 ;
reprobate, censure? 13 57

gemsenan defile? conspire? 4 161 n.

gemsene adj. held in common, shared
4 304

maenig v. manig

maenigo v. menig(e)o

gemseran declare ? determine ? 1 42

msere adj. famed, famous, glorious ; ill-
famed, notorious 6 100 14 144 18 15

mserS(o)/. fame, glory, prestige ; famous
deed, prowess

maest m. mast 4 36 21 24

msest ( i ) supe rl. adj. greatest; (2) adv.
most

maestrap m. rope ; //. rigging

maete adj. small ; super I. 14 582

meeS f. due proportion ; mseS wsere
was fitting 16 195

mseSel n. meeting, assembly 21 107 ;
speech, address 19 255

uiaaSelheriend m. praiser in the as-
sembly, partisan 12 13 n.

mseSelstede m. place of assembly 16
199 ; battlefield 4 142

rnseSlan v. maSelian

maew m. sea-mew

maga son, young man, man ; creature
186S

magan fst. prs. v. can, be able ; may

inagas v. msbg

GLOSSARY

221

mago •;'. maga

magucyst/. excellence, excellent quality

magurseswa leader, chief

magurinc m. man, warrior

magu]?egn m. thane

man indef. a man, one

geman v. gemunan

man (i) adj. false, treacherous 19 149 ;

(2) n. crime, outrage, sin
gemana intercourse, joining 15 40
gemangrc. mingling; in gemonge among
manianurge, prompt; exhort, encourage,

admonish
manig adj. many
mann m. man
manna man
manncynn n. mankind
manndryhten m. liege lord, master
mannjjwsere adj. kindly, friendly ;

superl. 14 449

manscaSa treacherous or wicked foe
mara compar. adj. greater, larger
maSelian speak
maorti, maSSum m. valuable object,

treasure, jewel ; sword
maSmgiefa treasure-giver, lord
ma'dmsweord n. valuable sword
me d. ofic me, to me
meant v. miht
meahte v. magan
meahtig v. mihtig
mear, meare v. mearh
mearc/ limit 2 19 ; to mearce limit or

end of life 4 403 ; boundary 1 42 ;

marches, desert land 19 158
mearchof n. dwelling in the marches or

wilderness
mearcian mark ; engrave 14 617 ; mark

out, impose 13 53
mearcland ». march -land, edge of

desert 19 67 ; sea-coast 22 38
mearcstapa roamer of the waste
mearc)>reat m. band of march-dwellers,

i.e. Egyptians 19 173
mearcweard m. guardian of the marches

or desert

mearh, mearg m. horse
mearn v. murnan
mec a. ofic me
mece m. sword

medrencynn n. maternal descent
medspedig adj. of medium wealth,

poor

medu m. mead
medubenc/i mead-bench
meduburg/ mead-town, castle

medudream m. mead-joy, revelry

medudrynce m. mead-drinking

medufull n. mead-cup

medugal m. uncontrolled through mead-
drinking, besotted

meduheall/ mead- hall

medusetl n. mead-seat, dwelling

inehte v. magan

meltan 3 melt away, dissolve, be con-
sumed

men v. mann

mene m. necklace, collar 4 423

mengan mix, mingle, stir up

mengo v. menig(e)o

menig(e)o/ multitude, host, company

menio v. menig(e)o

meodo- v. inedu-

meorringa v. mierring

meotud v. metod

meowle wk. f. woman, maiden

merce v. mearc

mere m. lake, mere ; sea

meredeaS m. ' sea-death, 'death-bringing
sea 19 380, 428

meredSor n. sea-beast

merefara seafarer

merefaroS m. sea-surge, breaker

merefisc m. sea-fish 14 51

mereflod tn. sea- waters, sea

meregrund m. bottom of the pool or
lake

merehwearf m. sea-shore

merelad/. sea-path, voyage

merestrset/. sea-road

mere stream m. sea- current, sea

merestrengo/ power of swimming

meretorht adj. gleaming over the sea

meretorr m. ' sea-tower,' towering sea

merewSrig adj. weary of, exhausted by
the sea 7 12

mergenne v. morgen

mersc m. marsh, wet ground

gemet (i) n. moderation, restraint 13 52
21 91 ; moderate force 14 161 ; (2)
adj. fitting, proper 18 47, 61

metan 5 measure ; measure out, mark
out 19 92

(ge)metan meet, meet with ; attack

metellest/ lack of food 10 15

gemetlic adj. moderate, temperate

metej>egn m. commissariat officer? 19
131 n.

metod m. what is measured out, fate,
destiny 2 19 ; freq. used of God, Lord

metod(ge)sceaft/ fate, destiny

mette v. metan

222

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

meftel- v.

mid prep. w. d. or a. with in various

senses : in company with, together with ;

among ; by means of
micel adj. great, large ; miceles adv.

greatly 19 143

micle adv. w. compar. much, far
middangeard m. earth, world
midde adj. middle, mid- 19 37, 168
midde wk. f. middle 14 400 22 163
mierce adj. dark, gloomy 14 244
mierring/l obstacle 19 62 n.
miht/ power, might
mihte v. magan
mihtig adj. mighty

mihtmod n. thoughts of violence, anger
milde adj. gentle, kind, merciful
mllgemearc ». distance measured in

miles
mllpaeS m. mile-path, course measured

in miles

milts/, kindness, favour, mercy
mln pron. of me, me ; my
mine 23 33 v. myne
minsian grow less, diminish
missenlic, mislic adj. various
missenllce adv. variously
mlsthliS n. mist-clad slope
gemittan meet, meet with
mlSan i conceal, dissemble
mod n. mind, thoughts ; heart, frame of

mind, mood, temper ; spirit, bravery,

courage ; anger, fury ; pride, arrog-
ance
modcaru/. anxiety, care, sorrow 8 40,

51 14 417

modcarig adj. sorrowful
mSdcrseftig adj. skilled, clever
modgast super I. e/modig
modgian show spirit 19 31 ; rage, grow

fierce 19 374

modgidanc v. modge]?anc
xnodheap m. gallant band
modhwset adj. eager, strenuous 19 124
modig adj. high-spirited, gallant, brave ;

fierce, angry

modigllce adv. bravely, proudly 16 200
mddleof adj. dear, beloved
modlufu/i (wk.) love
mSdor/ mother

modsefa mind, thoughts ; heart, spirit
modsnottor adj. wise, clever ; compar.

21 107
inodgej>anc m. mind, thoughts 11 6 ;

purpose 17 2 a
m6dj>rea/ oppression of spirits, anxiety

violent spirit, fierce temper
mOdwaeg m. fierce wave
modwlanc adj. self-confident, proud
molde wk. f. earth, world
mon(n) v. man(n)
gemon v. gemunan
niona moon
monao* v. manian
inonig, monge v. manig
mor m. moor ; marshy ground, fen
morgen m. morning
morgentld/ morning
morheald adj. on the sloping moors
morna v. morgen
morSor n. violent death, murder ; crime,

outrage 19 146

morSorbealo n. violent death, murder
morOorhete m. deadly hate, feud
gemot n. meeting, assembly 16 199 20

78 ; meeting in battle 15 50 16 301
motan pst. prs. v. ; mot am, is per-
mitted, may ; 2 s. m6st must ? 16 30 ;

pst. moste was permitted, was enabled,

might

multon v. meltan
gemunan pst. prs. v. remember
mund/ hand
gemunde v. gemunan
mundgripe m. grasp (of the hand)
murnan 3 trouble, care, reck 2 24 ? 14

569 16 96, 259 ; mourn, grieve 4 50

10 15 13 20

muS m. mouth ; opening 21 37
mu8a opening, door 14 106
muShsel/. greeting? salutary words? 19

439
muSleas adj. mouthless 9 9

myccle v. micel
mylenscearp adj. ground sharp
gemynd f. n. memory ; pi. mind 9 48

12 ii
myndgian bring to mind, remember ;

remind

gemyndig adj. mindful, remembering
myne m. purpose 14 315 ; desire 23 33
gemyne v. gemunan
mynelic adj. memorable 1 4
myntan intend, plan, plot
myrcan v. mierce
myr(g)8/ joy

na adv. not

naca boat

nacod adj. naked, bare ; stripped, active

19 390
naebbe = ne hsebbe

GLOSSARY

223

nsefde = ne hsefde

naefre adv. never

(ge)nsegan accost, address 19 23 21 244 ;

attack 4 297 ; tackle 14 278 ; partake

of 19 130

nsegel nail, plectrum (for harp)
nsegled adj. with knobs or bosses, em-

bossed

nsegledcnearr m. boat with nailed planks
naegledsinc n. embossed ornament
nsenig adj. , pron. no, no one
nsere — ne wsere

ne wses
nses 14 64= nealles
nsess w. headland, promontory
nsesshliS n. slope of headland or cliff-

side 14 266
uah=ne ah
nahwaeSer neither, nor
nales, nalses, nallas 2.'. nealles
uam v. niman
nama name

nan adj. , pron. no, no one
nathwelc pron. some one or other 4 253

11 48

ne not ; nor
neah adv. near ; neah ne not nearly 19

114 ; freq. used as prep. w. d.
geneahhe adv. repeatedly, again and

again ; superl. over and over again 14

176

nealles, nalles not
nean adv. from near, at close quarters

14 30

near compar. </n5ah
nearo (i) adj. narrow ; anxious, trying

77; (2) n. distress 14 337 ; //.

desperate straits, captivity 2 40
nearocrseft m. cunning art
nearosorg/ distress, misery
nearowrenc m. cunning trick
nearwe adv. closely, tightly, tensely 20

101, 136 ; with difficulty, strenuously

19 68 ~
nearwian confine 22 16 ; press, attack

14 277 ; grow closer 23 37
geneat m. retainer, vassal 16 310
ned- v. nled-
nefa nephew
nefne v. nemne
neh v. neah

genehe, genehost v. geneahhe
neidfserse v. nledfaru
nelle = ne wille
nemnan name ; mention 1 126
nemne (i) conj. save, except ; save that

14 214 ; unless 21 235 ; (2) prep. w. d.

save, except 4 141
neod/. desire 20 32, 48 ; pleasure, delight

13 84

neodian 21 100 n. \ v. nledan
neomian twang, vibrate 13 84 n.
neos(i)an w. g. visit, seek out ; return to
neotan 2 w. g. use 16 308 ; spend, pass

13 17

neowol adj. precipitous, sheer 14 250 ;

abysmal, deep 19 114
nergan v. nerian
nergend m. Saviour
(ge)nerian save, rescue
nesan 5 recover from, survive 5 48
nest n. food, provisions 13 28
nett n. network, curtain 19 74
(ge)neSan risk, venture (on)
nicor m. water-creature, seal? walrus?

14 77 n., 266

nicorhus n. haunt of nicor, cave
nled/ necessity, compelling force
nledan force, compel 14 375 ; intrans.

press on 19 68

nledboda emissary of fate 19 390
nledcleofa chamber of confinement 20

136

nledfara forced marcher 19 208
nledfaru/ compulsory journey 17 10
nledgefera companion in distress or dis-
tressed comrade 20 122
nledgestealla comrade in danger 4 72
nlehsta superl. ofnesih last, latest 4 427
nigene v. nigon
nigon num. nine 14 77
nigoSa num. ninth 21 244
niht/ night ; nihtes by night
nihthelm m. covering of night
nihtlang adj. lasting the night
nihtscu(w)a night -shadow, gloom of

night

nihtwacu/. night-watch
nihtweard m. guardian by night
(ge)niman 4 seize, take ; take on, add
to 7 48 ; take away, take off, kill ;
receive, accept
nloda v. neod
nlosian v. neos(i)an
nioSor v. niCer
genip n. darkness, dark place ; pi. 14

221

genlpan i grow dark, gloom ; fade into

darkness 6 96
nis = ne is
nlS m. enmity, spite, malice ; fight,

battle ; d. s. and g.pl. used as adv.

224

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

desperately, vigorously 14 278, 375 ;

d.pl. spitefully 12 44
niSer adv. downwards, down 14 221, 394
nlSgiest m. spiteful or malignant creature

14 394
nIShygdigaa)'. enterprising, bold; Kent, f

pl.n. nlShedige 14 433
nISscaSa fierce or desperate foe
nlSwundor n. sinister marvel or portent
nlwe (i) adj. new, fresh ; (2) adv. afresh

14 165

nlwian renew
no not

genog (i) adj. in plenty, many 4 320;

(2) adv. enough, plenty 9 52
nolde=ne wolde
genom v. (ge)niman
noma v. nama
norS adv. north, northwards
norftan adv. from the north
norSerne adj. from the north, Norse

15 18

norSweg m. way leading north
noSer v. nahwseSer

(i) adv. now ; (2) conj. now that,

since

v. nled
genyddon v. nledan
iiykstan v. nlehsta
nymfte conj. unless
nysse = nt wisse 20 101
nytt (i) / use, service 21 127 ; (2)

adj. useful, serviceable 14 176 22 163,

222

of prep. w. d. from, away from, out of
ofer prep. (a)w. d. over, above; (b] w. a.
over, above ; across, throughout ;
during 11 74 ; in preference to 21
154 ; beyond, exceeding, in a greater
degree than 1 37 2 19 9 65 ; after
14 118; against, in spite of 14 333
20 48 21 250
ofer m. bank (of river) 16 28 22 140 ;

edge (of a wood) 14 232
oferbrsedan overspread
ofercuman 4 overcome
oferfaran 6 pass over, traverse
oferferan pass over, cross
oferflltan i overcome, defeat
ofergan athem. v. pass over, cross ; pass

away 3 7, 13, 17, 20, 27
ofergangan red. v. overcome
ofernelmian cover over, shut in
oferholt n. 'upper wood,' forest of
spears? 19 157 n.

oferhygd f. overwhelming pride, arro-
gance, presumption ; g.pl. oferhyda

H37

ofermsegen n. superior force
ofermaSm m. great treasure or gift
ofermod n. over-confidence
ofersecan overtax, overstrain 14 381
oferswKSan overcome
oferteldan 3 cover over
ofer)?eccan cover, roof over
oferwinnan 3 overcome
ofgiefan 5 give up, yield
oflangian fill with longing 8 29
of(o)sty! haste, speed
Of(o)stllce adv. in haste, quickly 16 43 ;

compar. 20 59

ofsceotan 2 shoot down, slay
ofslean 6 slay, destroy 14 76, 611
oft adv. often

ofteon 2 take away 4 5 ; withhold 4 320
ofjjyncan be displeasing or distasteful
dgnian terrify 19 265
6ht 20 25 anything, aught
6ht/. pursuit 19 136
ohtnled/ urgent pursuit
ohwser anywhere
ohwonan from any quarter
51 v. alan
on v. unnan 19 269
on (i) adv. on ; (2) prep. w. d. or a. ;
freq. foil, case in, on, at ; into, on to,
on, to ; from 4 385 ; among 14 593 ;
purpose for 6 105 19 32, 199 ; according
to, after 19 186 ; time in, during 4 22
3iS. 338 14 20, 17

onselan inflame, fire

onarn v. oniernan

onbindan 3 unloose 20 in ; disclose,
reveal 14 3

onbregdan 3 pull open ; pst. onbrsed
14 105

onbugan 2 escape

oncierran turn back 4 350, 369 19 367

oncnawan red. v. recognize 14 297 16 9

oncunnan pst. prs. v. reproach, accuse

oncweSan 5 reply (to), answer 5 8 7 23
16 245

oncyrde v. oncierran

oncySS/ distress, misery

ondgit v. andgiet

ondr sedan red. v. dread, fear

ondrysne v. andrysne

ondslyht v. andslieht

ondswaru v. andswaru

onemn prep. w. d. close by

onettan hasten

GLOSSARY

225

onffing, onfShfj v. onfSn

onfindan 3 find, discover, perceive

onfon red. v. receive ; perceive ? 14 30

onfond, onfunde v. onfindan

ongan, ongon v. onginnan

ongangan red. v. march

ongSan (i) adv. again, back again 1 85 ?

16 49, 137 ; (2) prep. w. d. opposite,

facing 19 370 ; against 4 280 14 519

16 100

ongend i 85 v. ongean
ongieldan 3 pay, pay the penalty for
ongietan 5 understand, perceive ; dis-
tinguish, hear 4 343 14 270
onginnan 3 undertake, engage in ; make

a beginning, begin
onheele adj. hidden 22 in
onhoscnian scorn ; pst. onhohsnode 4

104
onhrSran stir up ; rouse, arouse ; fill

with confusion 19 398
onhweorfan 3 change
oniernan 3 fly in, fly open 14 103
onlaetan red. v. loosen, relax
onlag, onlah v. onleon
onlang adj. long cherished 19 53 n.
onleac v. onlucan
onleon i lend, grant, bestow
onllcnes v. anllcnes 14 212
onllhS v. onleon

onlucan 2 unlock, disclose 1 i 20 112
onmedla presumption, arrogance ; pi.

pomps 7 8 1

onsacan 6 fight, contend
onsaege adj. impending, imminent
onsaelan unfasten, loose
onsecan require, exact
onsendan send
onsittan 5 take a seat in 9 44 ; dread,

fear 22 127

onspringan 3 snap, break
onstellan establish 17 4 a ; cause 22 74
onstreccan spread out /./. 23 9
onsundran adv. apart, privately
onswlfan i heave up 14 302
onsyn v. anslen
ontynan open 20 40 ; disclose, reveal

20 no

onleon i (3) prosper 4 90 19 241
onjmngan 3 press on 19 343
onwacnian awake 5 1 1
onwsecnan 6 awake 6 45 ; arise, spring

(from) 1 5 4 56 18 23
onwendan change, alter
onwindau 5 unwind, relax 18 68 ; reveal
20 in

onwist/ dwelling, habitation
onwreon i uncover, reveal, declare 12 3

20 104, 115 23 i
openian open, open up
or n. beginning, origin ; front of army,

van 14 526 19 326
6ra edge, shore 9 39
orcneas m.pL evil spirits, monsters 18

24 n.
ord m. point (of spear or sword) ; nail,

claw 22 109 ; front of army, van
ordfruma originator, creator
ordwiga fighter in the van, champion

2 6

oretmsecg warrior
6rett/. (?) fight, combat 1 41
6retta challenger, champion 14 281
orfeorme adj. without share in, estranged

from

orlege n. strife, hostility
orleghwll/ time of strife
ormedan despair 22 226 n.
ormod adj. discouraged, despairing
orotS n. breath 14 300
ortrlew* adj. despairing, despondent

19 154
or^anc (i) m. wisdom 19 359 ; (2) adj.

cunningly contrived 21 2
oruS v. oroS

orwena adj. without hope (of)
08 (i) prep. w. a. until, up to ; (2) conj

until

0$ Jjset conj. until
oftberan 4 carry away
6Ser adj. second, another ; other, the

other
6Ser . . . 6Ser one . . . the other ;

oSer twega . . . oSSe either ... or
oSfaran 6 elude, escape from
oSgan athem. v. escape, get away 4k 333
oolsedan bring away
o8?Je conj. or ; or else
oSJncgan 5 take away ; pst. oSJjah 19

338

oS]?ringan 3 wrest away
oSwItan i scorn

6wiht, awiht/n?». anything, aught
oxa, ox

plegian play ; fight 15 52
prass m. (?) arrayed troops

rad/. riding, road ; name of rune-le ter

= R 9 66

gerad adj. skilfully constructed
rsecan stretch, reach out 14 129

Q

226

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

gersecan reach, get at 16 142 22 131 ;

strike, stab, wound 4 364 14 58 16

158, 226 22 73
reed m. counsel, advice ; good counsel

4 227 22 X2O ; ordained state of things,

decree 4 425 11 37 19 431
rsedan. advise 17 18 ; decide 16 36 ;

w. d. rule 1 12 ; possess 4 256
gersede n. trappings (of a horse) 16 190
rsedfsest adj. prudent, wise
rsedhycgende adj. prudent, wise
rsedmaegen n. might, power
rsefnan carry out, perform
reran raise

rses m. rush, onset, charge
rsesan rush

rsesele/ answer to riddle
raest v. rest
raeswa chief, leader
rand m. rim, border 14 368 21 37, 131 ;

shield freq.

randgebeorg n. shield-defence, rampart
randburg f. citadel of shields, massed

troops 19 379

randhaebbend ' shield-holder, ' warrior
randwiga warrior
rasettan rage
raSe v. hraSe
read adj. red
read 13 46 n. \ v. reodan
r§af n. dress, armour, equipment ;

spoils 16 161

rgafian strip, despoil 4 384 22 6
reccan narrate, relate, expound 18 3 19

359 22 167
reccan w. g. care about, reck 2 23 16

260

rece m. smoke

reced n. dwelling, building ; hall, room
recen adj. quick, prompt, rapid
recene adv. quickly, promptly
regn m. rain

regnheard adj. very hard
regnian prepare, make ready 19 386 21

126 ; adorn 14 159 16 161
regnig adj. rainy

regnweard m. mighty guardian 14 52
renian v. regnian
reodan 2 grow red 13 46 n. ; make red

4 211

reofan 2 tear asunder, pull down 19 379
reon v. rowan
reord/ voice ; speech
reordian speak 19 256, 435
reotan 2 grieve 13 46 ; weep 14 237
reote v. rot

reotig adj. sad 10 10

rest/, rest, repose 14 533 19 134; bed,

couch 14 129
restan rest

gerestan w. g. rest (from) 8 40
reSe adj. fierce, stern, cruel
ribb n. rib, spoke (of wheel)
rice n. (i) power, authority; control;

kingdom ; (2) adj. powerful, mighty ;

superl. 1 15 16 36
ricene, ricone v. recene
rldan i swing, dangle, hang 11 83, 95

13 33 ; wave 19 248 ; ride (on waves)
22 47 ; ride on horseback freq.

riht (i) «. justice; right, due; mid
rihte, on riht, duly, correctly; special
character 21 112 ; (2) adj. straight
19 126 ; right, fair 16 190 21 254 ;
correct 20 102

geriht n. straight direction 22 70

rihte adv. duly, correctly

rihtend m. director, ruler 20 8 1

rihtger^ne n. mystery 20 34

rihtscytte m. straight shooter, good
marksman 21 117

gerlm n. reckoning, number

rlman reckon, count 4 59

rinc m. man, warrior ; warlike creature

14 102

rincgetsel n. numbers of warriors, band

riodon v. rldan

gerisne adj. fitting, due

rod/, cross, crucifix 22 216

roden v. reodan

rodor m. firmament, sky, heavens

rof adj. gallant, brave

rofene v . reofan

rond v. rand

rot n. ? cheerfulness ? 11 95

rowan red. v. swim 14 14, 41

rum (i) adj. spacious, wide ; (2) n.

space, opportunity 14 385
geruma chamber, dwelling
run / secret thoughts ; meditation,

counsel

runstsef m. rune-letter 14 617
rycene v. recene
ryht, ryht- v. riht, riht-
(ge)ryman widen, extend 20 no ; make

space for 4 146 ; clear away 19 284,

395 ; him gerymed wearfj they were

at liberty, had opportunity 4 382 ; cf.

also 16 93

rynegiest m. swift visitor
rjpnig adj. good in the council, skilled

in debate? 21 117

GLOSSARY

227

gesaca adversary

sacan 6 fight

sacu/. strife, fight, quarrel

sadol m. saddle

sa&y.w. sea

ssebat in. boat

saecce v. sacu

saecyning m. sea-king

seed adj. sated, weary 15 20

saedan f. secgan

saede z>. secgan

ssedraca sea-serpent, sea-dragon

saefaestenn n. sea-fastness, coast

ssefor/i sea- voyage

ssegan bring down, lay low, slay 4 74

saege, ssegon r. seou

saegrund wz. sea-bottom, depths of the

sea

ssel n. hall 11 79
seel /»._/". season, time, occasion ; //. joy,

happiness ; on salum rejoicing 19

106, 451

sselad/. sea-vogage
sajlaf / spoil of the sea
sselan bind, confine
gesaelan come to pass, happen
ssalida seafarer

seelS/. prosperity, good fortune 4 229
saelwang m. fertile plain
ssemann m. seaman, voyager
sremest superl. adj. least important,

most insignificant 1 125
saemeSe adj. sea-weary
ssenaca boat

S83n83ss m. headland, promontory
saene adj. slow, sluggish ; compar. 14

275 ; unresponsive 1 67
sserinc m. sea-warrior
saerof adj. daring on the sea
sseslS m. sea-voyage
ssestream m. sea-current, sea
saeweall m. sea-wall 19 302 ; sea-coast

9 i

ssewlcing m. sea-rover

saga r. secgan

sah v. slgan

salobrun adj. dark-lustrous 5 36

salowigpad adj. dark-coated

salum v. sael

same adv. ; swa same likewise, at the

same time
samnian assemble 19 217 ; join together

10 18

samod (i) adv. together; likewise, also
1 142 4 386, 435 9 13 22 142; (2)
prep. w. d. at the moment of 4 341

sand n. sand ; sea-shore

sandsse/. m. sandy sea

sang m. song, singing

sar (i) n. pain, hurt, wound 1 95 13 19

14 169 ; (2) adj. painful, grievous,

bitter 894 258 6 50
sarig adj. woeful, bitter
sarigmod adj. anxious, worried
sawol/ soul
sawoldreor n. life-blood
sawolhord n. soul-treasury, body
sawolleas adj. lifeless
sawon v. seon
scacan 6 hurry away, depart ; trans.

shake 19 176
gescad n. separation, distinction ; on

gescad distinctly 12 8 ; Jmrh gescad

discreetly, wisely 23 13
gescadan red. v. decide, settle
scadenmsel adj. (sword) with divided

pattern, figured

scamian be ashamed (of) 14 511
scamu/ shame 21 219
BcaSa destroyer, warrior 4 4
sceadu/. shadow
sceaf v. scufan
sceaft m. shaft, spear
gesceaft/.w. creation; creature, thing;

ordained course, decree 6 107
sceal v. sculan
scealc nt. servant, man
sceam m. white horse
scean v. sclnan
gesceaphwll/ destined hour
gesceapu n.pl. fated course, course of

things or life, destiny
sceard adj. w. g. mutilated, deprived
sceardfeSer/. notched or trimmed quill,

plectrum

scearp adj. sharp ; keen, discerning
sceat m. region, quarter
sceatt m. treasure ; coin
sceaC/. sheath 16 162
sceaftena v. scaSa
sceawian gaze at, examine, view
gesceawian show
scefte v. sceaft
scenn m. ? plate? guard (of sword)?

4 616

sceo cloud 22 56
sceoc v. scacan
gesceod v. sce'SCan
sceolan, sceolan, sceolde "'. sculan
sceon happen 19 422 ; fall to (the lot of)

19 473
sceop v. scieppan ;

228

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

scSotan 2 shoot, dart

sceote v. scot

sceotend m. shooter, warrior

scepen v. scleppan

scepeu v. scieppend

gescer v. gescieran

sceSCan 6 w. d. injure

scield in. shield

scieldan shield

scieldburg f. shield-defence, phalanx of

shields 16 242

scieldfreca bold warrior 14 518
scieldhr§o$a shield-plate ? 19 113
sciell adj. resounding 23 27
(ge)scieppan 6 plan 4 294 ; create
scieppend m. Creator
gescieran 4 cut through 4 372
scierian assign, allot 1 92 13 96
gescife v. gescyfe
scild v. scield
scildig v. scyldig
scile v. sculan

scillingrlm m. value in shillings
sclnan i shine

scinn m. phantom, demon 22 67
scip n. boat, ship

scipflota man from over the sea, seaman
sclr adj. shining, bright, radiant ; clear

1 103

sclran make clear, decide 4 99 13 66
scome 7'. scamu
scop m. minstrel, bard 3 36 4 126

18 2

scot n. darting, leaping 21 40
scoten v. sceotan
scotian shoot, strike 22 66
scrallettan twang, resound
(ge)scrlfan i prescribe, ordain
scrlSan i glide, stalk ; advance, move,

pass

scufan 2 push 16 136
sculan pst. prs. v. be obliged, must,

shall, be destined ; ought ; to be one's

turn or nature
scur m. shower
scurheard adj. hardened by showers of

blows ? very hard ? 14 5 1 8
gescyfe in. precipitation ; on gescife

headlong 14 313
scyl v. sciell
scyld v. acield
scyld/. guilt 12 8, 35
gescylde v. scieldan
scyldig adj. guilty 18 50 ; having

forfeited 4 261
scyle v. sculan

scyndan hurry, hasten

scyneo1 v. sclnan

scype v. scip

scyppend v. scieppend

scyran v. sclran

gescyred v. scierian 1 92

scyte m. shooting, marksmanship 13

69

Scyttisc adj. Scottish (prig. Irish)
se pron. adj. that, the
se (i) dem. pron. that man, he ; (2) rel.

pron. who, which ; freq. foil, by )?e ;

se ]?e his whose l 131 ; s§ J>e him

to whom 1 133 ; cf. 6 31
seah v. seon
sealde v. sellan
sealman v. selma
sealt (i) n. salt ; (2) adj. salt
sealtyft1/. salt wave
sSarian grow withered
searo n. device, contrivance 22 157 ; d.

pi. searwum by design, cunningly 12

40 ; armour, arms, equipment freq.

in pi.

searobunden adj. cunningly fastened
searoceap n. curious article
searocrseftig adj. skilled
searofah adj. of cunning pattern
searogimm m. cunningly wrought gem

or ornament

searolic adj. clever, ingenious
searonTo1 m. crafty attack
searo]?anc m. clever thought, artifice
searo]?ancol adj. thoughtful, wise
searwian be cunningly wrought
seaw n. liquid, moisture
seax n. knife
secan seek, seek out ; aim at, desire ;

go towards, visit, return to
secg m. man, man-at-arms, warrior
secgan say, tell, utter, narrate
sefa mind ; spirit, heart ; feelings,

emotions

sege, sege'S v. secgan
segl n.m. sail, awning
seglgierd/ sail-pole, yard
seglrad/ sail- path, sea
seglr6d/ sail-pole, yard
seg(e)n m.n. standard, banner
seg(e)ncyning m. king with a standard,

great king
segon v. seon
(ge)sehtan settle
sel compar. adv. better
geselda companion, retainer 6 53
seldan adv. seldom 21 233, 234

GLOSSARY

229

seldcyme m. rare visit

sele m. hall

sgle v. ssel 4 195

seledream m. hall-joy, festivity

selefull n. hall- cup

selereedend m. hall-ruler, man

selesecg m. retainer

selest, sSlast superl. adj. best

seleS v. sellan

self, selfa adj. pron. self; w. g. (his,
her, its, their) own

selfcwalu/ self-killing, suicide 13 56

(ge)sellan give ; give up ; hand, offer ;
grant, permit

sellic adj. rare, strange, marvellous

selma couch, bed

selra, sella com far. adj. better

selS v. sselS 4 229

ges§man settle between, arbitrate be-
tween

semninga adv. suddenly

sendan send, send out ; drive ; hurl

se6/. v. se, s§

sSoc adj. sick, ill

seofian sigh

seofon num. seven

seofoCa num. seventh

seolfor n. silver

seomian hang, be suspended, dangle ;
hang about, lurk 19 209

(ge)seon 5 see, spy, descry ; look 14 261
19 178

seono/ sinew 14 199

seonobend m.f. 3 6 «.

seonobenn/. wound in sinew 13 19

seoSSan v. sif56an

(ge)settan place, set up ; establish, fix,
decree ; mec . . . settan on set about,
set off on 9 21

geset n. place, site 6 93 ; dwelling 21 66

setl n. setting (of sun) 16 17

setlrad/. journey to its setting

gesiSan declare, prove

sebeah v. swabeah

sibb/ kinship, bond of kindred 14 343
23 37 ; peace 1 46 4 321 23 24

gesibb adj. related, near

sibbseSeling m. noble kinsman

sibb(e)gedryht/ band of kinsmen

sibbsum adj. peaceable

sld adj. broad, wide, roomy, capacious,
spacious, extensive ; generous, mag-
nanimous 11 3

side adv. widely

side wk. f. side

sle prs. subj. be, is

slen / power of seeing, sight, vision 22

159

geslene adj. visible, evident
sierce wk. f. shirt (of mail), corslet 4

171

sierwan equip, arm 16 159
siexhund num. six hundred
siexta num. sixth
siextig num. sixty
slgan sink, fall, drop
sige m. victory, triumph
sigebeacn n. sign or symbol of victory
sigebeorn m. victorious warrior
sigebleme wk. f. trumpet of victory 19

452

sigedryhten m. triumphant lord
sigeeadig adj. victorious
sigefolc n. victorious people
sigehreSig adj. triumphant
sigel n. circular jewel, brooch ; sun

name of rune- letter —^ 9 66
sigelgas adj. without victory, of defeat
sigerlce (i) n. triumphant rule ; (2) adj.

triumphantly powerful
sigerof adj. victoriously strong or brave
sigebeod/i triumphant people
sigewaepen n. victorious weapon
sigor m. victory, triumph
sigorweorc n. deed of triumph
gesihS v. (ge)seon
simle adv. continually, ever, always
sin adj. pron. his, her, its (own)
sine n. treasure, jewel
sinceald adj. very cold 19 388
sincfset n. valuable vessel or cup
sincgiefa treasure-giver
sinchroden adj. laden or adorned with

gold

sincmaCm m. treasure, valuable object
sincgestreon n. treasure
sinc]?egu./. receiving of treasure
sincgewsege n. weighing out or weight

of treasure, mass of treasure ?
sind, sindon/rr. ind. pi. are
sindolg «. huge wound, laceration 14 199
sinfrea overlord
singales adv. continually 4 195
singan 3 sing ; cry, howl 19 164 ; ring

ring out

sinhere m. great army 4 335
sinscaSa huge destroyer or foe 14 183
sinsnsed/ huge lump
sinsorg/ great trouble or sorrow
sittan 5 sit ; be placed
gesittan 5 sit down 6 HI 14 263 ; sit up

14 131 ; trans, settle in, win 19 449

230

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

SIS m. journey, voyage ; expedition, ad-
venture, undertaking ; time, occasion

sIS adv. late ; ser o$Se sld1 ever 9 8

geslS m. companion, retainer

sISboda guide

sISfset n. joxirney, course

sISian journey, go

sISor compar. adv. later, after

siSSan (i) adv. afterwards, since ; (2)
conj. since, after ; as soon as ever 9 39

slsegen v. slean

sleep m. sleep

slsepan red. v. sleep

slSan 6 strike, slay

geslgan 6 gain by fighting, win

sleap v. slupan

slltan i tear, tear up ; wound

sllSen adj. severe, cruel

slog v. slean

slttpan 2 slip, fall 22 54 ; glide, rush 19
406

smsete adj. refined, pure

smiS m. smith, artificer

snaw m. snow

snell adj. quick, active, prompt, smart,
vigorous

snelllce adv. quickly, rapidly

sner/. string (of harp)

snlwan snow

snot(t)or adj. wise, prudent, shrewd

snflde adv. quickly

snyt(t)ro/ wisdom, prudence, sagacity

softe adv. easily

somnigean v. samnian

somod v. samod

sona adv. immediately, quickly

sonde v. sand

song v. sang, singan

sorg/. anxiety, grief, sorrow

sorgcearig adj. grieving, sorrowing

sorgfull adj. full of anxiety, dangerous
14 14, 268 ; troubling 21 234

sorgleas adj. carefree

sorgleoS n. song of sorrow, dirge

sorglufu/ (wk. ) anxious love

soft (i) adj. true, actual, real; (2) n.
truth, fact, reality

soScwide m. true saying

soScyning m. true king, king of truth

soSfsest adj. true, just, righteous

soSgiedd n. true story, narrative, lay

soSHce adv. accurately, exactly

soSwundor «. marvellous fact

gespannan red. v. fasten on

spaw v. splwan

sped/ success ; power, means 21 72

spSdan have sufficient means

spedig adj. wealthy, rich

spell n. narrative, story; message, tidings

spellboda messenger

spere n. spear

spildsIS m. journey of destruction,
hostile pursuit

spillan destroy, injure

splwan i vomit, spew

sprsec/. speech 4 164 19 433

gespreca interlocutor, adviser 21 204

(ge)sprecan 5 speak, utter, say

sprengan burst, be shattered

spriceS v. sprecan

springan 3 spring, spring forth 14 325
16 137 ; spurt 4 365 ; spread, extend
4 18, 74

stselan commit 21 54 ; avenge 4 316

stsepegang m. power of walking 23 22

stseppan 6 step, walk, go, advance

stseS n.m. shore, bank

stseSCan keep steady, support 22 89

stag, stab v. stlgan

stan m. stone, rock, cliff

stanboga stone arch

stanclif n. rock-cliff 7 23 14 283

(ge)standan 6 stand ; stand fast, remain
7 67 ; be fixed, hang 2 50 ; lie 14
223, 255, 522, 564; stick fast 14 273 ;
374 16 145 ; stand up 16 171 19 303,
375. 452 21 23 22 108 ; take one's
place 14 340 ; appear suddenly, flash
forth 5 36 14 108 19 in ; w. d. fall
upon, attack 14 165 19 136, 201, 406

stanfset n. 'stone-vessel,' cave? 2 35

stang v. stingan

stanhlio1 n. rocky hillside or cliff-face

starian gaze, stare

staSol m. foundation, bottom

staSolseht/ estate ? 23 22

stealc adj. steep, high 22 41

stealdan red. v. w. d. possess 23 22

gesteall n. fabric, framework

steap adj. towering, lofty, steep ;
prominent, bulging, convex 14 309
21 23

stearcheort adj. stout-hearted

steam m. sea-bird

stede m. place

stedefsest adj. steadfast

stefn v. stemn

stefna v. stemna

stefne 16 34 v. stemna

stemn/. voice

stemn m. time ; nlwan stefne afresh
1* 337

GLOSSARY

231

stemna stem, prow of boat
stemnettan take turns, succeed each

other

steoreS v. stleran
stician stick fast, remain fixed
stlepan raise, support 4 412 ; heap up,

pile up 19 297
stleran steer 21 120 ; w. g. check,

restrain 5 19? 21 171
stlg/ path 14 248 22 128
stlgan i go, advance 4 278 19 319 21

86 ; rise, mount 22 6, 85, 141 ;

increase 12 19

gestlgan i come to, reach 19 418
stihtan arrange, marshal
gestillan trans, make calm, hush, allay
stille adj. quiet, calm, still
stille adv. quietly, privately 2 35
stingan 3 stab, transfix 16 138
stlS adj. stiff, stubborn, stenuous
stRJhycgende adj. stout-hearted, resolute
stldllce adv. vigorously, loudly
stlSmod adj. stiff of purpose, resolute
stKJweg m. stubborn course
stlwita official, officer? 22 25 n.
stOp, stopan ?•. stseppan
storm m. storm, tempest
stow/, place
strsel m.f. arrow
strset f. paved road, road
strang adj. strong
stream m. flow, current ; water, sea ;

river

streamrad/ sea-course
streamgewinn n. strife or turmoil of

waters

stregan strew, spread
strengest superl. of strang
strengo/ strength
gestreon n. possession, treasure
strudan 2 plunder
gestun n. whirlwind 22 71
stund / time ; stundum from time to

time, at intervals ; sefre embe stund e

ever and anon

stunian boom, resound, clash
stynt v. standan
styreO v. stleran
styrge v. styrian
styrian set in motion, stir up, rouse ;

relate, recount 14 470
styrman rage, roar
sue v. swa 17 3 22 108
suhtorfaderan pi. uncle and nephew
sum adj. , pron. some, some one, a

certain one, one, a

sumor m. summer

sumorlang adj. summer-long, long in
summer

sund n. swimming ; sea

gesund adj. uninjured 22 154

sundgebland n. mingling of waters,
surge

sundbuende //. dwellers by the sea,
men

sundnytt/. swimming-function ; sund-
nytte dreah swam 4 276

sundor adv. separately, apart

sundorcrseft m. special skill or power

sundorgiefu/. special gift or faculty

sundorwine m. special or bosom friend

sundorwundor n. special marvel

sunne wk. f. sun

sunu m. son

sunwlitig beautifully sunny

susl n.f. torment

sftS adv. south

suSan adv. ; him be suf5an to the south
of them 19 69

sdBerne adj. from the south 16 134 n.

suSweg m. south road, south

swa (i) adv. so, thus, accordingly; (2)
conj. as, since ; w. subjunct. as if 6 96 ;
8W§, . . . ne and yet . . . not, with-
out 5 42 22 146 ; (3) re I. pro ft. which
14 351 18 5 ; whatever 24 12

swselan burn

swses adj. familiar, beloved, dear

swseS n. track, trail 22 129

swahwseSer, swsetter adj. pron. which-
ever (of two) 5 28 18 60

swancor adj. pliant, supple 3 6 n.

swapan red. v. sweep away 19 396

swat n. blood

swatfag adj. blood-stained

swatswseS ». bloody trail 4 345

swabeah adv. however, nevertheless,
notwithstanding

swaftul tn. smoky flame

swealg, geswealh v. swelgan

swealt v. sweltan

swearc v. sweorcan

sweart adj. dark, black

swefan 5 sleep ; fall asleep, die

sweg m. sound, noise ; cry, clamour
7 21 ; sweet sound, music

swegl n. sky, heaven ; sun

sweglrad/ ? 23 29 «.

swelc adj. pron. such, of such a kind ;
used as re I. such as

swelce (i) adv. likewise, also ; (2) conj.
w. subj. as if

232

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

swelgan 3 swallow

sweltan 3 die, perish

swencan press hard

sweng m. stroke, blow

sweoloSe v. swoloft

sweep v. swapan

(ge)sweorcan 3 be dark, grow dark or

gloomy
sweorcendferhS adj. dark or gloomy of

spirit, hopeless 13 25
sweord n. sword
sweordbealo n. wound or death by

sword

sweordleoma gleam of swords 5 36
sweordplega sword-play, battle
sweordwlgend m. warrior
sweordwund adj. wounded with a sword
sweostorsumi m. sister's son 16 115
sweot n. company, troop
sweotol adj. clear, distinct, manifest ;

superl. 21 10
sweotole adv. clearly
swete adj. sweet
sweSrian grow calm, slacken, weaken,

diminish, fail

(ge)swlcan i fail ; w. d. disappoint
swice/. trick 12 31
swlfan i move along, hurry
swift adj. swift, fleet
swlge adj. silent, hushed
swilc v. swelc

swimman 3 swim ; sail, row ? 6 53
swln n. swine, boar 4 171
swincan 3 labour
geswincdseg m. day of toil
swingan 3 swing, fly
swlnllc n. boar-image, figure of boar
swinsian resound, re-echo ; make

melody

swioSole v. swaSul 14 403
swlpian scourge, lash ? 19 379
swKJ a-dj. strong, violent, forcible ;

swISre hand right hand
swISan strengthen
swKJe adv. forcibly 16 118 ; exceedingly,

excessively, very ; efne swa SWlCe

just as much 4 152

swISfram adj. very energetic, vigorous
swlShycgende adj. strong of purpose
BWlSor compar. adv. more strongly 12

29 ; more especially 14 555 ; more

4 199 21 254
swlftrian grow stronger
swISsnell adj. very quick or active
swogian roar
swol n. (?) burning, fever

swolo?5 m.n. flame

sworn v. swimman

sword v. sweord

swulge v. swelgan

swulton v. sweltan

swurd v. sweord

swustersunu v. sweostorsunu

swutol v. sweotol

swylc v. swelc

swylt m. death

swylteo1 v. sweltan

swyn v. swln

swynsode v. swinsian

swyrd v. sweord

sy v. sle

gesyhS v. (ge)seon

syleft v. sellan

sylf v. self

syll /. (?) planking, platform, ledge

14 157

syllan v. sellan
syilan 3 6 v. selra
syllic v. sellic
symbol «. feast, feasting
symbelwlanc adj. flushed with feasting
symble, symle v. simle
syncfatum v. sincfaet
syndig adj. good at swimming
syne v. slen
ges^ne v. geslene
syngales v. sin-
synn/. crime ; sin
synnfull adj. sinful
synnlust m. sinful desire
synnwracu/ punishment 20 77
synscaSan v. sin-
synt, syndon v. sind, sindon
gesynto/. welfare, prosperity
syrce v. sierce
gesyrwed v. sierwan
v, siOSan

tacn n. token, symbol

tsscan show, instruct, teach

tEecnan point out, indicate

tsefl/". game of draughts or backgammon

tsehte v. tsecan

teelende adj. fault-finding, critical

tsesan lacerate, wound

getah v. geteon

tal(i)ge v. talian

talian account, reckon

tan m. branch, bough

getang adj. touching, close to 23 8, 42

teah v. teon

teala v. tela

GLOSSARY

233

tealde v. tellan

teale ?•-. talian 22 120

tela adv. well, properly 14 358 20 75
23 42

geteled v. tellan 19 232

telge v. talian

telgian shoot up, flourish 23 34

tellan count, reckon

temian tame ; pamper

getenge adj. close to, occupying

geteon i order, appoint 23 2

teon 2 draw, drag, pull ; -lead 14 521

teon adorn, equip 4 43 14 579 17 8 a

teonhete m. hostile attack

teoSa num. tenth

tha v. J>a 17 7

tharf v. jmrfan

there v. Jjsere

thoncsnotturra v. )?ancsnot(t)or

tladse v. t§on adorn 17 8

tld/. time, season, hour

tleman breed, increase

tlen num. ten

til adj. good ; honest

\,i\prep. w. d. for, as 17 6

tilllce adv. well

tlr m. splendour, glory, success

tlriadig adj. glorious, distinguished,
famous

tlrfsest adj. splendid, glorious, famous

t5 (i) adv. too ; on 14 261 ; (2) prep,
w. d. to in various senses ; result,
intention for, as ; w. certain verbs
from 2 59 4 321, 431 5 28 6 115 14
27 16 179 ; of 4 198, 199 ; in'10 12 ;
by, at 22 100 ; time at, on 4 26 19
198, 263 ; w. pred., not transl. 4 403
13 56 ; t6 hwses to what quarter 19
192 ; to J?ses to such a degree, so 7
40 20 7 etc. \ to J)ses ]?e until 14 96

toberstan 3 crack, split, be shivered

tobrecan 4 break up, break to pieces

todselan separate, part

tddrlfan i drive apart 14 47

tfigsedere adv. together

togganes prep. w. d. towards 14 129 ;
against 7 76

togen v. teon 2

toglldan i slip away, slip off 4 318 20
129

getoht n. fight, battle 16 104

tolucan 2 unpin, unfasten

tomiddes adv. in the midst

torht adj. bright, brilliant

torhtlic adj. brilliant, illustrious

torn m. anger, vexation

torngemot n. 'angry meeting,' fight

tornsorg/. anxiety, care

tosselan be lacking

tosamne adv. together

tdsawan red. v. scatter, distribute 21

176
tSscadan red. v. separate, distribute 21

225

toslltan i sever, part
tOstencan smell out, discover
t6tw£eman divide
toSmsegen n. might of tusks
t6J>ringan 3 force apart
toweccan arouse
tOwrecan 5 drive apart, scatter
tredan 5 tread, tread upon, walk upon
treddian walk, stalk
tr5ocynn n. nature of wood
treow n. tree, wood ; wooden cross 20

"3

treow f. trust, good faith, loyalty ;

plighted word, vow of constancy
triedeC v. tredan
trum adj. strong
getrum n. company, troop
(ge)truwian trust, trust in 4 352 14

283 ; conclude (a treaty) 4 155
trymm «. length, step 16 247
trymman.trymian strengthen ; marshal,

get ready
tu num. n. two
tud(d)or n. breeding, propagation,

growth 9 19

tungol n. heavenly body, sun, star etc.
twa num. f. two
getwsefan separate, part ; deprive ;

divert

getwseman deprive
twam num. d. two
twaniht/. two days (after)
twega num. g. two ; ofter, segCertwega

either

tw§gen num. m. two
twelf num. twelve
twentig num. twenty
tweo wk. m. doubt

tweonum ; be ... tweonum between
twisprac /. 'double speaking,' insin-
cerity 21 269

tyd(d)ran bring forth, breed
tyht m. movement, motion
tyman v. tleman
tyn v. tlen

)>a (i) adv. then, on that occasion ; (2)
conj. when, since

234

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

])5, pron. a.s.f. that, the ; m.f. ti.pl.
those, the ; they ; who, which

gej>segon v. (ge)Jricgan 14 499

Jjsem, ))am d.s.pl. v. se, seo, J?set

]?zer (i) adv. there; (2) conj. where;
when; if only 14 144, 316 19 152

J>sera g.pl. = )?ara

}>sere g. d. s. of seo

Jjses /row. g.s.m.n. of that, of the ; his,
its ; whose ; used as adv. to such a
degree, so ; therefore, on that account

J?aes }>e conj. because 1 95 2 26, 40 14
488 18 20 19 51 ; so far as, accord-
ing to what, as 9 48 14 211 15 68 18
55 20 77

]>set pron. n. that, the ; which, that
which, what

)>8et conj. that, so that, in order that

J>sette = Jjset j>e that, that which, what

(ge)jjafian submit to, endure ; permit 21
197

)?ah v. Jjgon

ge)>ah v. (ge)Jricgan

J>an v. Jjffim

J>anc OT. thanks w. g. 13 97 16 147

gejjanc n. thoughts 20 100 ; intention
16 13

)?anchycgende adj. thoughtful, provident

(ge)J>ancian w. d. thank

)>ancsnot(t)or adj. wise, thoughtful 17
ii 21 100

)?ancword «. word of thanks 1 137

Jjaiion adv. thence, from there ; after
that 19 431

J>ara £•.//. ofse, seo, J>set

J>as /row. a.f.s. and n.a.pl. this ; these

J>6 r^/. particle who, whom, which ; as

]?e pron. instr. = Tp$ w. compar. 14 203,
275- 38a 16 146, 312 ; because 20 75

]>e a.d. offrft.

]?eah (i) «^i». nevertheless, however 16
220 ; (2) conj. though

gej>eah v. (ge))>icgan 14 480, 490

]?eaht/ plan, counsel 20 103

gej>eaht w./ plan, counsel 20 102

}>eahton v. ]?eccan

]?earf v. J>urfan

}>&B.Tff. need ; poverty

J>earfian be in need 4 163

Dearie adv. vigorously, severely, hard

J>eaw m. custom, habit ; quality, char-
acteristic ; pi. good qualities, virtues

Jjeawfsest adj. virtuous

)>ec a. o/"J>fl

jjeccan cover 19 288 22 14 ; embrace
14 15

J>ecgan consume, destroy

J?ege, J)egon v. )?icgan 14 65 20 120

J>eg(e)n m. royal servant, retainer ;
official, officer

]?eg(e)nllce adv. like a thane, loyally

J?egnian serve, treat 14 62

J?ehton v. )?eccan

]?encan think ; purpose, intend

gej?encan take thought ; conceive, con-
ceive of ; decide ; bear in mind

]?enden (i) adv. at that time, then
4 384 ; as yet 14 504 ; (2), while, so
long as

Jjengel m. prince

]?enode v. Jjegnian

J>eod f. community, tribe, people,
nation freq. ; host, army 19 158

J?eodcyning m. king 14 322

]>eoden m. prince, king, lord, chief

]?eodenhold adj. faithful to a chief or
prince

J>eodenleas adj. without a chief or lord

J>eodenstol m. throne

jjeodmsegen n. army, host

}?eodscaSa destroyer of the people

]?eodscipe m. sense of community, re-
sponsibility 21 248

]?eodgestreon n. national treasure

J>eod]?r§a m.f. national distress or
calamity

J?eof m. thief

]>eon i (3) prosper, flourish

j>§os/>r0«. f.s. this

J?eow m. servant 22 82

]?es pron. m.s. this

jrf v. }$ 2 24, 38

(ge)Jricgan 5 receive, accept ; partake of

jrider adv. thither

gejjledan join, put together 914

j?len, J?Iewan press, squeeze 22 97 ;
urge on, drive 22 33

)>Iestre adj. dark 21 42

j)Iestro/ darkness 20 14 21 51 22 19

Jjlewan endow 21 134

J?ige8 v. (ge)])icgan

]?In pron. adj. of thee ; thy, thine

JrinceS v. Jjyiican

Jring n. affair ; creature ; senige ]>inga
on any account 14 173

gejnng n. agreement, terms 4 145 ;
issue, result 14 27

Jringian settle 4 98

J>is pron. n.s. this

J?is pron. instr. =]?ys

gejjoht -m. thought ; purpose ; counsel,
plan

GLOSSARY

235

(ge)J)olian endure, suffer ; hold out ;
submit to, put up with

)jon pron. instr. of Jjsat ; after prepp. =
J>3em ; w. compar. =^ 14 6 20 59
etc.

J>onan v. ]?auon

}?one a. ofsG, B§

]?onne (i) «rf^. then, at that time ; there-
fore ; gif Jjonne if however 4 164 ;
(2) conj. when, whenever ; than, than
that

Jjorfte v. Jjurfan

J?racu/. conflict, clash

gejjrsec n. press, pressure, crowding

J>rsecwlg n. battle-clash, conflict

J>raecwudu m. ' clash- wood, ' spear

14 542

J>rsed m. thread
)?r38ft n. quarrelling 12 42
J?raegan run, race

Jjrafian repress 22 19 ,

J>rag/l time, space of time
ge)?rang n. press, crowd 16 299
J?rea m.f.n. threat ; affliction ; d.pl.

)?ream forcibly, severely 20 137
J>reat m. company, band ; multitude,

22 174

Croatian press upon, afflict
jjreo num. three 7 68 16 299
)>reodude v. Jjridian
jjridda num. third
)>ridian meditate, deliberate 20 100
jjrimme v. J>rymm
gejjring n. mass, volume 22 42
)?ringan 3 press ; press on, press for-
ward ; cramp 7 8
Jmntan swell

]?rlste adv. boldly, decisively
jjrlsthygdig adj. daring 21 144
}>rlt(t)ig num. thirty
J?r6wian suffer, endure
gejjrungen v. Jjringan
jjrymm m. power, might, majesty ;

force, violence 12 24, 42 22 19, 76
Jjrymmful adj. powerful 22 82 ; violent

22 4

Jjrymmlic adj. powerful, mighty
j>ry$/i power, might 19 340 ; violence,

shock 6 99

adj. powerful, mighty 14 118
thou

m. banner
)>tlhte v. jjyncan
J)unge/jA subj. ^/J>§on 21 182
jmnian thunder, roar, resound
|)Unor m. thunder 21 4

J?urfan pst. prs. v. need

J?urh prep. w. a. through ; by means of ;

owing to ; w. abstr. sb. in, with, by ;
freq. —adv. 2 14 4 161, 245 etc.
)>urhr£esan rush through
]?urhteon 2 carry out, accomplish
jmrkwadan 6 penetrate 4 80 16 296
Jmrstig adj. thirsty
J>us adv. so, thus
Jjftsend num. thousand
JjftsendniEelum adv. by thousands
gejjwsere adj. genial, pleasing
)?y instr. of]>set = }>&m that, the; -used

as adv. on that account, therefore

2 19, 25 4 267 19 349 ; freq. w.

compar. the ; used as conj. for that,

because 2 13

gej?ydan v. gejrtedan 9 14
gejjyde v. ]?Iewan 21 134
>yder v. ]?ider

gejjyhte adj. acceptable? 23 1 8
Jjyhtig adj. strong
gejjyldy.w. patience
ge)?yldig adj. patient
J>yle m. spokesman, court orator and

wit 14 583

]?yllic pron. adj. such 12 45
J>yncan seem, appear
}?yrel (i) n. hole 22 125 ; (2) adj. with

holes, perforated 5 46
)>yrs m. water-monster, giant
j>ys instr. of]>eB, ]>is 15 66 16 316
]?yslicne v. ]?yllic
Jjysne v. )jes
jjystro v. )>iestro
Jjystrum v. )>Iestre 21 42

v. J>Ien, J>Iewan

uard v. weard

uerc v. weorc

ufan adv. from above, above

ufer(r)a compar. adj. later 4 411

ufor compar. adv. higher up

fLhta morning, early morning

flhtcaru/. anxiety in the early morning

87

tLhttld/. early morning
umborwesende adj. as a new-born

child

unbefohten adj. unfought
unbiernende adj. without being burnt

14 291

unc d.a. of wit
uncer pron. of us two, our
uncttS adj. unknown, unfamiliar, strange

236

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

undearnunga adv. not secretly, openly

5 23
under prep. w. d. a. under, underneath ;

freq. indicates circumstances or manner

in, during, with
underhnlgan i sink under
underne v. undierne
undernmsel n. morning
undierne adj. not hidden, manifest

4 292

unearg adj. not cowardly, bold
unfaecne adj. free from guile, sincere
unfsege adj. not yet marked for death
unfseger adj. not fair, hideous
unflitme adv. without dispute, loyally
unforcuS adj. not base, honourable,

honest

unforht adj. unafraid, bold
ungeara adv. not long ago, lately 19 33
ungifeSe adj. not granted, withheld

4 302

ungrund m. vast multitude 19 424 n.
unnleowe adj. not warm, cold
unhneaw adj. not niggardly, generous
ungellc adj. unlike, not alike
unlifigen.de adj. dead
uniytel adj. great

unmseg m. false or disloyal kinsman
ungemedemod adj. immoderate, unre-
strained 12 25 n.
unniurnllce adv. heedlessly, without

caring 11 33 ; remorselessly, pitilessly

20 95
(ge)unnan pst. prs. v. grant ; admit

145
unnytt adj. useless

unorne adj. feeble ; unimportant,
ordinary

unriht n. injustice 2 27

unrlm n. countless number, multitude

unrot adj. not cheerful, sad

unscende adj. undamaged, without
blemish 2 52 ; blameless, splendid
20 108

unslaw adj. not slow, ready, quick

unsnyt(t)ro/ folly

unswISor compar. adv. less strongly

unsynnum adv. for no crime, inno-
cently

untydre m. monster, monstrous creature

unwaclic adj. firm, compact

unwacllce adv. boldly, vigorously

unwearnum adv. irresistibly

unweaxen adj. not full-grown

up adv. up, aloft, on high ; up from the
sea, inland 15 70

upcund adj. heavenly, celestial

upgang m. permission to go up

upheah adj. lofty 8 30

uplang adj. upright

uppe adv. high up, aloft

uprodor m. sky, heaven

ur f name of rune-letter 20 88 «., 127 n.

ft£Q pron. adj. of us ; our

urigfeSera adj. wet-feathered

uriglast adj. leaving wet or dewy tracks

urne v. ure

us pron. d.a. us

usic = us a. ofw&

ussa v. Ure our 20 48

ut adv. out, outside, outward

utan a^z>. outside

utfus adj. eager to depart

utweard adj. trying to get out

uSe f. (ge)unnan

uSwita philosopher, sage

uueorthse v. weorftan 17 14

uuirthit v. weorCan

t

wa m. indecl. woe

wac adj. soft, yielding 6 67 ; pliant 16

43 ; feeble 19 223 superl. 7 87 12 7
wace <2dfr. feebly 20 82
wacian be awake
wacian slacken, weaken
wada v. wsed

wadan 6 go, march, advance, pass
gewadan 6 come upon, spread over 19

378

waeccende v. wacian 19 213
wsecnan 6 be born
waed n. water, sea ; pi. wado, wadu
waed/. clothing, garment
gewaede n. garment
wsefre adj. dazed, unsteady 4 210
W33g v. weg 5 44
Wffig m. wave

wsegan afflict, delude 12 41
wsegbora wave-bearer, wave-traverser
wsege n. cup 11 68
waegfset n. wave-vessel, sea 22 52
wsegfaru /. avenue of waters
WSeglKJend m. wave-crosser, seafarer
wsegn m. wagon, cart
wsegstseS n. sea-shore
wsegstream m. water, sea
wsel n. slaughter, carnage ; dead bodies,

slain

W£el m.n. pool 21 39
wselan afflict

wselbend/wr. deadly bond
wselbenn/i deadly wound

GLOSSARY

237

waelcSasiga carrion-eating (raven)
wselcwealm m. destruction, slaughter

22 8

wselfsehS/- deadly feud
waelfsBSm m. deadly embrace
wselfag ad;, blood-stained
waelfeld m. field of slaughter
waelfiell m. slaughter, violent death 14

422

wselfyr n. deadly or destructive fire
wselglfre adj. greedy for blood
wselgrimm adj. savage, ferocious
wselgryre m. deadly horror or horror of

death

wselhlemm m. murderous stroke
wselhlence wk. f. linked battle -shirt,

corslet

wselhreow adj. fierce, cruel 10 6 14 491
wselhwelp m. fierce dog
Wselisca v. Wielisc
wselm v. wielm
wsBlmlst tn. mist or vapour from the

slaughter, reek of battle
wselnett n. 'slaughter-net,' corslet
wselnIS m. hostility, enmity
waelrses m. deadly attack, charge
wselrap m. ' pool-rope, ' icy bond or

icicle

W3Blr§af n. spoils of battle
wselrec m. deadly vapour
wselrest/ death-rest, death 16 113
wselseax n. dagger
waelslieht m. deadly blow, battle 5 29 6

91 19 328
wselspere n. spear
wselstSw /. ' slaughter -place,' field of

battle ; wselstowe wealdan win the

battle

wselwulf m. ' slaughter- wolf,' enemy
waepen n. weapon
wsepen)>racu /. 'weapon -clash,' battle

21 127
wsepengewrixl n. ' weapon-exchange, '

battle

wsepnedcynn n. armed force
wser adj. wary, cautious 21 221
wser /. agreement, treaty, covenant,

compact ; safe-keeping, protection 4

27

wseran, waere v. wesan
wserloga breaker of treaties
waerwyrde adj. cautious of speech
wses v. wesan
wsestm m. n. growth, stature, form 14

213 21 101 ; crops, fruit, produce 13

24 21 9 23 9

W88t (i) adj. wet 22 169 ; (2) «. liquid
22 63

wsetan wet, moisten

wseter n. water

wseteryS/. sea- wave

wseftan rush along 20 134 ; hunt, drive
19 396

wafian be amazed

wagian rock, sway

wale v. Wealh

walu v. wael 14 527

walu/. rim, hoop 14 516

wamb/". interior, inside 22 63

wamm m. stain, defilement 18 52 21
258 ; crime 21 198

wan adj. lacking (in) 20 57

wandian hesitate, shrink

wandrian wander

wang m. plain ; surface ; ground ; field

wanhygdig adj. irresolute, weak of pur-
pose 6 67

wanian dissolve, melt away 14 60 1

wanian bewail 14 169

wann adj. dark

wann v. winnan

wannfeax adj. dark- haired

wansselig adj. unhappy

wansceaft/. wretched condition

wanspedig adj. unsuccessful

warian dwell in 14 219 ; occupy 6 32

waron v. wesan 14 500

wast, wat v. witan

gewat v. gewltan

wa8/. wandering, journey, course

waSol adj. wandering, travelling

waSum, waSem m. water, wave

we pron. we

wea m. misery, trouble, woe

weadaed/. deed causing misery

wealaf f. remnant or survivor of mis-
fortune

gewealc n. rolling, tossing

weald m. forest 15 65

geweald n. power, authority, rule,
control

(ge)wealdan red. v. w. d. control, rule ;
possess, wield ; w. g. 16 83

gewealden adj. under control ; subject
11 9 13 69 21 us

wealdend m. ruler, possessor, wielder

gewealdenmod adj. self-controlled

wealdswaSu/ track through a wood,
glade

Wealh adj. (i) Welsh; (2) m. serf,
slave

wealic adj. miserable, pitiable

238

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

weall in. rampart ; wall ; sea-cliff
weallan red. v. gush, well out ; boil,

boil up, heave, surge
weallfsesten «. rampart, fort
weallstan m. wall-stone, building-stone
weallsteall m. foundation, structure
weard m. guardian ; king ; watchman,

sentry 7 54
weardian guard ; inhabit, dwell in,

occupy, remain in
wearg m. outcast, felon 21 55
wearn = worn; be warnum in abund-
ance, to the full 3 i n.
wearnian guard against 21 258, 264
wearp m. warp, parallel foundation

threads stretched tight 22 173
weaj>earf f. wretched need
weaxan red. v. grow, grow up
weccan arouse, revive 4 246 ; kindle 14

412

wedan rave, rage 19 405 20 134
wedd n. pledge
weder n. weather ; storm 14 48 19 118 ;

season 4 196 21 42
wederwolcen n. cloud
wefl /. weft, thread thrown across the

warp with the shuttle
weg m. way, path, road ; on weg away
wegan 5 carry, bear ; show, display

4 91

wegas v. wseg
wegon v. wegan
wel adv. well ; rightly 14 344
wela wealth, riches
welgian grow rich, flourish
welhwa pron. everybody 12 30
welhwelc pron, every one, each one 4 64
welig adj. wealthy
welgejmngen adj. distinguished
W§n/ expectation, hope ; likelihood 21

218 ; risk 22 43 ; name of a rune-letter

= W 9 67

wenan expect, hope for ; think
wendan turn ; change 3 32 ; avert 18

38; go
wenian train, accustom 21 186, 241 ;

treat well 4 151 6 29, 36
wennan v. wynn
weolan v. wela
wgold, weoldan v. wealdan
weora v. wer
weorc n. work, deed ; construction,

structure 21 no; d.s. weorce grievous

14 257 ; = geweorc 2 2
geweorc n. handiwork ; work, structure

21 3

bewail

male creature 14

weorod, weorud v. werod

weorpan 3 throw, cast, throw out

(gejweorCan 3 come into existence, come
to pass ; grow, become ; freq. used as
auxil. vb. =wesan, beon be; get,
get away 19 294

geweorSan 3 agree to, agree upon 4
226

(ge)weorolan honour, adorn

weorSUce adv. honourably, nobly ;
compar. 5 38 ; super I. 14 429

weorSmynd m.f.n. honour, glory

weoruld v. woruld

weotena v. wita

weotode v. witian

weox v. weaxan

wepan red. v. weep

wer m. man ; male
213 18 17

werbeam m. weir-beam, barrier 19 402

wered v. werod

wergan, werigean v. werian

wergan v . wlerig

w5rge, wergum v. werig

werhSo v. wiergSo

werian defend, protect ; put on, don 19
202 ; wear? 19 475

W§rig adj. weary, exhausted
sorrowful 6 15, 57

werigmod adj. exhausted with sorrow

werod n. troop, army, host

werodrsedenn / military
202

werj?§od/ people, nation

wesan 5 be

west adv. west, westward

weste adj. deserted, desolate,
habited

westenn ». wilderness

westenngryre m. terror from the wilder-
ness

wlc n.f. place, dwelling, abode ; en-
campment, camp 19 87, 133, 200

(ge)wlcan i give way 19 399 ; be
blunted 14 320

wicg n. horse

wicgcrseft m. horsemanship

wlcian dwell, remain

wlcing m. pirate

wlcsteall m. place for encampment

wlcstede m. dwelling-place, homestead

wld adj. wide, far-extending ; t6 wldan
feore for ever

wldcHS adj. widely known

wide adv. widely, far off, to a distance,
far and wide

sad,

service

unin-

GLOSSARY

239

Wldefeorh in. used as adv. for ever, for

eternity, always

gewider n. bad weather, storm 14 236
wldlast m. distant wandering
wldor compar. of wide
(ge)wldost super I. of wide farthest, as

far off as possible
Wielisc adj. Welsh 13 90
wielm m. boiling, seething ; seething

waters, surge ; fount 4 289
wiergSo/ cursing, damnation 14 91
wlerig adj. accursed 11 24 13 42 20 85
wierman warm 22 99
wiernan refuse 15 24 16 118 19 51
(ge)wierpan recover 4 375 19 130
wiersa compar. adj. worse, inferior ; J>set

wyrse the worse side, misfortune 11 1 6
wierSe adj. worthy ; compar. 14 459
wlf n. woman, wife ; lady
wlflufu (wk. }f. affections of (his) wife
Wig n. war, battle, attack ; fighting

power 14 527
wiga warrior

wlgbealo n. misery or destruction of war
wlgbill n. sword

wlgblac adj. pale (with fear of attack)
wlgbord n. shield
wlgcrseft m. skill in war
wig end m. warrior
wigeS v. wegan
wlgfruma leader in battle
wlghafola helmet
wlghaga 'battle-rampart,' phalanx 16

102

wlgheap m. fighting band, troop
wlgheard adj. strong or brave in battle
wlgleoS n. ' battle-song,' trumpet-call
wlglic adj. ready to fight
wlgplega ' bat tie- play,' battle; fighting

skill, prowess 13 69
wlgrsedenn/. battle, combat
wlgrod / ' battle- pole,' thunderbolt 19

407

wlgsmitJ m. 'battle-smith,' warrior
wlgsteall m. 'battle-place,' citadel
wlgweorSung / 'honouring of idols,'

idolatry
wiht/. n. thing, creature ; freq. w. neg.

(also wihte) at all, in any way
wilbec ? 23 26 n.
wilde adj. wild

wilder n. wild creature 14 269
wilgiest m. beloved guest, popular char-
acter 12 7

willa desire, will, wish
willan will, wish ; be going (to)

wilna -v. willa 1 78 9 61

wilnian desire

wilgesKJ tn. retainer

win n. wine

wlnburg/. town, castle

wind m. wind

windan 3 wind, circle, turn, wheel ; fly
(of a spear) 16 322 ; wave (trans.} 16
43 (intrans.} 19 342; float, sail (in
the air) 19 80

windbland n. wind-current 14 414

windig adj. windy, wind-swept

windgerest/ wind-swept couch 11 94 n.

wine m. friend ; mate, clansman ; be-
loved lord

winedryhten m. dear lord or master

winegeomor adj. sorrowing for dear
ones

wineleas adj. friendless, lordless, unpro-
tected

winemseg m. (dear) kinsman, clansman

winetreow/l lover's troth

Wlngal adj. wanton through wine,
luxurious

winia v. wine

gewinn n. struggle, conflict, fighting,
fight

winnan 3 labour, struggle, fight

gewinnan 3 win 16 125

wlnreced n. wine-hall, hall

wlnssed adj. sated with wine 13 50

wlnssel ». wine-hall, hall 6 78

wlnsele m. wine-hall, hall

winter m. winter ; pi. years

winterceald adj. wintry cold

wintercearig adj. sorrowful in winter

wlnjjegu/i wine-drinking

wiolena v. wela

wlr m. wire

wls adj. wise, prudent ; clever, skilled

wlsa guide, leader

wisdom m. wisdom ; learning

wise wk. f. manner, fashion 20 16 22
156 ; way of acting, behaviour,
character 12 30

wlsfsest adj. wise, prudent

wlsian guide

wislic adj. certain 3 34

gewisllcost superl. adv. most certainly

wisse -v. witan

wist/ food 19 130 22 165 ; abundance,
luxury 6 36 11 12

wiste v. witan

wistfyllo/. abundant feast

wit pron. we two, both of us

wita wise man, councillor, elder

240

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

gewita accomplice 21 198

witan pst. prs. v. know ; be conscious
of ; discern 12 8, 16

gewitan pst. prs. v. learn, ascertain 14
211

gewitan i go, pass, go away, depart ;
freq. w. compl. in/in.

wlte n. punishment, torture

wltega wise man, philosopher 12 3

witian decree, destine

wltig adj. wise

gewitloca mind

wltnian punish 18 52

witod v. witian

gewitt ». understanding, mind, sense,
wits, faculties

gewittig adj. wise, prudent

wiS prep, (a) w. d. a. over against, oppo-
site 4 324 19 303 ; vis-a-vis, com-
pared with 4 148 ; towards 2 54 4 114
14 25, 193 16 290 ; to, with 9 14 ;
with 14 343 ; from 14 115 ; on ? 14
131 n. ; against freq. ; in return for
16 31. 35. 391 to; (b) w. g. in the
direction of, towards 16 8, 131

wiSerlean n. repayment, requital

wiCfaran 6 retire, escape 19 460

wiSfon red. v. seize 14 142

wiShabban resist, stand against 14 154

wiSre n. (power of) resistance 4 352

wiSstandan 6 resist 615

wlanc adj. proud, self-satisfied, stately,
gallant, martial

wlencan adorn

wlenco/. pride, arrogance 21 90 ; glory,
ambition 4 430 14 10

wlltan i gaze 16 172

wlite tn. beauty

wlitebeorht adj. radiantly beautiful

wlitig adj. beautiful

wlitigian make beautiful 22 156 ; look
beautiful 7 49

woe, w6cun v. wsecnau

wod v. wadan

wSh (i) adj. crooked 11 24 ; (2) n.
wrong 21 249

wfihwyrd/. devious destiny

wolcen «. cloud ; pi. sky, heavens

wolcenfaru/. course or drift of clouds

wolcengehnast n. collision or clash of
clouds

wolde v. willan

worn v. won 11 24

woma loud sound ; blast of trumpet 19
100 ; uproar, tumult

wone v. wan 20 57

wonn, won v. winnan
wonn-, won- v. wann-
w6p tn. shouting, howling 14 167 19

200; wailing, lamentation 14 414 19 42
wore v. weorc

word n. word ; d.pl. freq. not transl.
wordbeotung/. vow
wordcrseftig adj. skilled in speech
WOrdcwide m. speech, conversation
wordgiedd n. song ; dirge 14 440
wordhord n. word-store, speech
wordon v. word
wordriht n. law

wordgerjfne n. 'word-mystery,' writing
worhte, geworht v. wyrcan
wOrian decay, be in ruins
worn m. multitude, numbers ; freq. w.

fela

worod- v. werod-
woruld/. world
woruldar/. worldly honour
woruldcrseft m. power, talent
woruldcyning m. king
worulddsel m. region
womlddrgam m. joy, delight
woruldllf n. life in the world
womldrlce ( i ) adj. powerful, in authority

21 105 ; (2) 11. earthly kingdom, world

6 65 8 13

woruldgesselig adj. prosperous
woruldgestrgon n. wealth

w68bora maker of melody, bard, minstrel
wracu f. punishment, misery, distress

34

wrgec, wrsec n. exile 3 i

wrsecca exile, free-lance; outcast, wretch
20 51

wrseclast m. footstep of exile, exile

wrsecmaecg m. exiled man, exile

wrsecmann m. exile

wrsecsIS m. journey in exile, exile

wrsestan twist, pluck

wrsetlic adj. wonderfully made, marvel-
lous, wondrous

wrsetllce adv. ingeniously, cleverly 21
no ; splendidly, wondrously 13 93

wrsett/ cunningly made ornament

wrseSan get angry, rage 22 4

wrseS(8)o/ wrath 22 28 n.

wraS adj. fierce, ferocious, hostile

wraSe adv. heavily, with a vengeance 8

32

wreah v. wreon
wrecan 5 drive, drive out, expel 4 361

14 401 22 2, n, 18 ; utter, tell 4 125

7 i 8 i 11 84 12 15 14 440, 471

GLOSSARY

241

gewrecan 5 avenge 4 310, 414 16 208,

248, 257, 263 16 279 18 19
wrecc(e)a v. wrsecca
wregan stir up, agitate
wrencan play tricks, be deceitful
wr6on i cover 22 12
wreoSen- v. wriSen-
wriceS v. wrecan 22 1 8
wrldian flourish
gewrit n. writing, book
wrltan i engrave 14 610
wrISan i bind up

wriSenhilt adj. with twisted or cord-
bound hilt 14 620
wrixl / exchange, retaliation
wrixlan exchange ; wrixlan wordum

converse or sing

wr6ht /. persecution, quarrelling, feud
wudu m. forest, wood, grove
wudubeam m. tree
wudurec m. wood-smoke
wudutrSow n. wood (material)
wuldor n. heavenly glory
wuldorcyning m. king of glory (God)
wuldorf seder m. father of glory (God)
wuldorgiefu (wk. ) / glorious gift 21

90

wuldorgesteald n. splendid furnishings
wuldortorht adj. gloriously or radiantly

bright

wulf m. wolf
wnlfhgafodtreow ' wolf - head tree, '

felon-tree, gallows 22 223 n.
wulfhliS n. wolf -haunted hillside 14

219

wull/ wool

gewuna adj. accustomed 19 389
wund (i)/. wound ; (2) adj. wounded
wunden /./. of windan = adj. twisted,

coiled, hooped ; spun 22 173
wundenfeax adj. with braided hair

(mane and tail)
wundian wound
wundor n. wonder, marvel ; d.pl.

wondrously, marvellously
wundorbebod n. marvellous order or

command

wundorgiefu/ wonderful gift
wundorlic adj. wonderful
wundorsmiS m. marvellously clever

smith

wundorworuld f. wondrous world
(ge)wunian dwell, live ; remain, con-
tinue, abide ; be situated 11 57
gewunian remain with 4 22 ; habituate

oneself, have dealings 21 202

wunne v. winnan

wurdon v. weorSan

wurS- v. weorS-

wylfen adj. wolf-like

wylle v. willan

wylm v. wielm

wyndaeg m. happy day

wynleas adj. joyless, cheerless

wynlic adj. pleasant

wynn/. joy, delight

wynsum adj. joyful, pleasant

(ge)wyrcan make, create, form, fashion,
construct, achieve 1 72, 142 1 74
21 21 ; bring to pass, cause 4 20

wyrd/ destiny, fate

gewyrht «./ deserts 21 183

wyrhta craftsman 21 112

gewyrhta worker, doer 21 186

wyrm m. serpent, dragon

wynncynn n. race of reptiles or serpents

•wyrmeS v. wierman

wyrmfag adj. with serpentine pattern

wyrmllc n. serpentine pattern or orna-
mentation

wyrnan v . wiernan

wyrp m. throwing 13 69

wyrpel m. foot-ring (for falcon)

wyrpte v. wierpan

wyrsan, wyrse v. wiersa

wyrt/. root

wyrt(t)ruma root

gewyrSeS v. weorSan 20 135

gewyrSode v. weorSian

wyrOra v. wier8e

wyruld- v. woruld-

wyscan wish

geyced v. lecan

yfel (i) adj. evil ; (2) n. evil

ylcan v. ilca

yld- v . ield-

ylfe elf, fabulous creature 18 24

ylfete v. ielfetu

ymb, ymbe prep. w. a. around, near ;
about, concerning, as regards

ymbclippan embrace, surround

ymbfSn red. v. clasp, seize 14 386

ymbgan athem. v. walk round 14 482

ymbhwyrft m. circumference, compass

ymbhycgan reflect on

ymbsittan 5 hover round 14 66 ; sur-
round 4 9

ymbwlcian encamp round 19 65

yr f name of rune- letter ^Y 20 83,
121 n.

yrfe v. ierfe

R

242

yrhSo v. iergS(o)
yrmSum v. ierm8(o)
yrr- v. ierr-
ys v. is
$8f. wave
ySast v. lettest

y8gebland «. ' mingling of waves, '
surge

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

n. ' wave-board ' gunwale of

boat
y«de v. leSan

ySlaf/. 'wave-leavings/ strand, beach
ySgesene v. Ie8geslene 14 540
ySgewinn n. ' struggle in waves,' power

of swimming
ywe v. lewan 20 32

NAMES OF PERSONS AND PLACES

N.B. — An asterisk after a name indicates that the person or place denoted by the name has
not been identified.

Abel Abel 18 20

Abraham 19 18, 273

^Ggelmund 1 117

JElfhere (i) father of Waldere 2 n, 50 ;

(2) kinsman of Wiglaf 14 347 ; (3)

retainer of Byrhtnoth 16 80
^ElfnoS retainer of Byrhtnoth 16 183
-Klfrlc 16 209
.ffilfwine (i) the Longobard king 1

70 n. • (2) retainer of Byrhtnoth 16
_2ii, 231
.ainenas* 1 61
^EscferS a Northumbrian, son of

Ecglaf 16 267

JEschere Hrothgar's thane 14 259
JEthan Etham, a city 19 66
JEtla, Attila the Hun king, he died in

A.D. 454 1 18 «., 122 2 6
.ffiSelgar father of Godric 16 320
.SJSelred king of England 979 - 1016

16 53, 151, 203 24 10, 18
2E8elrIc retainer of Byrhtnoth, brother

of Sibyrht 16 280
^ESelstan son of Edward the Elder,

king of Wessex, 924-940 15 i
Ale will* 1 35 «.

Alexandreas Alexander the Great 1 15
Amothingas* 1 86 «.
Angel the country occupied by the

Angles before they came to Britain

1 8»., 35
Anlaf Olaf, leader of Norse invaders

15 26, 31, 46 ; vide N. Kershaw,

Anglo-Saxon and Norse Poems, pp.

62-64

Baningas* 1 19
Beadeca* 1 112 «.

Beadohild a princess, daughter of Nith-
heard 3 8

Beanstan father of Breca 14 26

Becca Bikki 1 19 «. , 115

Beowulf a Danish king 4 18, 53

Bgowulf the Geat hero, son of Ecgtheow

Billing* 1 25 «.

Brandingas* Breca' s people 1 25 14 23

Breca a Branding prince, Beowulf s

rival in swimming 1 19, 25 14 8, 33, 85
Breten Britain 15 70
Brettas Britons 24 10
BrSsingas the Brisings of the Edda,

owners of the famous collar 4 423
Brunanburg 15 5 place where the famous

battle took place in A.D. 937 ; for site

v. introd. note p. 68
Brytene v. Breten
Bryttum v. Brettas
Burgendas Burgundians 1 19 n., 65

2 46

Byrhthelm father of Byrhtnoth 16 92
ByrhtnocS the ealdorman, defeated in

battle by the Danes
Byrhtwold old retainer of Byrhtnoth

16 309

Gaelic* 1 20

Cain Cain 18 19

Cananeas Canaanites 19 442

Ceola father of Wulfstan 16 76

Cnut king of England 1017-1035 24 18

Constantinus king of the Scots 15 38

Creacas Greeks 1 20, 76

Crist Christ 20 2, 37 21 4

Dceghrefn a Hug warrior, slayer of

Hygelac and slain by Beowulf 4 283
Deanas* 1 63
Dene Dane(s)
Deor a minstrel 3 37
Dunnere a warrior at Maldon 16 255

243

244

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

Dyflen Dublin 15 55
Dynges* mere 15 54

Eadgils (i) king of the Myrgings, lord
of the travelled minstrel in Widsith 1
93 • (2) younger son of Ohthere 4 411

Eadmund son of Edward the Elder and
brother of King ^Ethelstan, whom he
succeeded as king of England in
940 ; reigned till 978

Eadrlc a fighter at Maldon 16 n

Eadwacer* 10 1 6

Eadweard (i) Edward the Elder, son of
King Alfred and father of ^Ethelstan ;
king of Wessex 900 - 924 15 7, 52 ;
(2) Edward the Confessor, king of
England 1042-1066 24 13, 24 ; (3)
name of two fighters at Maldon 16

. 117. 273
Eadwine (i) father of ^Elfwine 1 74;

(2) father of Ealhhild 1 98 ; (3) a

Longobard king? 1 117
Eadwold a fighter at Maldon 16 304
Eaha a fighter at Finnsburh 5 16
Ealhelm an ealdorman, father of

^Elfwine 16 218
Ealhhild a pri ncess , daughter of Eadwine,

patroness of the minstrel in Widsith

. 1 5- 97
Eannmnd elder son of Ohthere the

Swedish king 14 354
East-Dene East Danes 14 478
East-Gotan East Goths or Ostrogoths,
Eormanric's people ; see Gotan 1 113
East-Seaxan men of Essex 16 69
East-Pyringas East Thuringians 1 86
Eatule v. Eotole
Ebreas Hebrews 1 83
Ecglaf father of Unferth 14 i 16 267
EcgJ>eow father of Beowulf the Geat 14

31. 330
Egypte Egyptians 1 83 19 145, 367,

416, 421
Elsa* 1 117

Emerca one of the Herelings 1 112 n.
Englaland England 24 20
Engle Angles 1 44, 61 15 70 ; English

24 ii
Eofor a Geat, son of Wonred and

brother of Wulf ; slayer of Ongentheow

4 3*7. 363. '392. 396
Eolas* 1 87
Eomer son of Offa king of the Angles

4 120
Eormanrlc king of the Ostrogoths 1

8, 18, 88, in 3 21 4 425

Eotan Jutes 1 26 n.

Eotenas Jutes? Frisians? 4 132 «., 148,

201, 205

Eotole Italy 1 70
Eowas 1 26
Exsyringas? 1 82 n.

Faraon Pharaoh 19 14, 32, 156, 417
FIfeldor river between Holstein and

Slesvig 1 43 n.
Finn king of the Frisians 1 27 4 128,

141, 156, 188, 206, 212, 216 5 37
Finnas the modern Lapps i 20 «., 76

14 82

Fitela nephew of Sigemund 4 69, 79
Folcwalda father of Finn 4 149
Folcwalding Finn 1 27
Francan Franks 1 24 n., 68 4 293,

434
Freawaru daughter of Hrothgar and

wife of Ingeld 4 222
FreoCerlc? 1 124 n.
Fridla one of the Herelings, brother of

Emerca 1 113
Frlesan, Fresan Frisians 1 27 n. , 68 4

153, 164, 293, 296, 431
Frlescyning Finn 4 285
Frlesland Friesland, Finn's country 4

186, 273
Froda king of the Heathobards and

father of Ingeld 4 225
Froncan v. Francan
Frumtingas* 1 68
Frysan v. Frlesan

Gadd 16 287

Gar-Dene Spear-Danes, Danes 4 i

Garmund uncle of Eomer, king of the

Angles 4 122

Garulf a fighter at Finnsburh 5 19, 32
Geat as Geats, Beowulf's people, who

lived in extreme S. of Sweden ; see

introd. note to 4 G
Gefflegas* 1 60
GefSas the Gepidae 1 60 n.
Gefwulf* 1 26
Gifica the legendary founder of the

Burgundian royal house 1 19
Glslhere a Burgundian king 1 123 n.
Glommas* 1 21, 69
Godrlc (i) son of Odda 16 187, 237 ; (2)

son of ^Ethelgar 16 221 ; both fighters

at Maldon

Godwlg brother of Godric 16 192
Godwine brother of Godwig and Godric

16 192

NAMES OF PERSONS AND PLACES

245

Gotan 1 18, 89, 109 3 23 Goths, a
people first heard of in the first century
A.D. as a Germanic tribe dwelling
near the lower Vistula ; thence they
pushed S. and S. E. as far as the
Black Sea. By the middle of the
fourth century the East Goths formed
a great and powerful kingdom under
Eormanric ; see Eastgotan

Grendel a monster in human form slain
by Beowulf in the hall Heorot

GflShere (i) the famous Burgundian
king Gundahari or Gunther 1 66 n.
2 25 ; (2) a fighter at Finnsburh 5 19

GflClaf a Danish warrior hostile to Finn
4 208, perhaps the Guthlaf who is
mentioned in 5 17, 34

GuS-Scylfingas Swedes ; see Scylfingas
4 326

Hselsingas 1 22 «.

HsereSas 1 81 n.

HseScen son of Hrethel the Geatish

king ; he accidentally kills his brother

Herebeald 4 313, 324
HseSnas 1 81 n.
Hagena called Hogni in the Edda ; he

was a friend of Gunther, whom he

helped in his fight with Walther 1 21

2 47
Halga younger brother of Hrothgar the

Danish king 4 61
Kama called Heime in M. H. G. legend ;

he carried off the famous collar of the

Brosings 1 124 n. , 130 4 422
Harold king of England in 1066 24 36
Healfdene father of Hrothgar 4 57, 124

14 494, 505, 525

Healf-Dene' Half- Danes, 'Danes 4 129 n.
Heardred king of the Geats, son of

Hygelac ; killed by Onela the Swedish

king 4 407
Heatfobeardan Heathobards, enemies of

the Danes 1 49 n. 4 232, 237, 267
HeaSo-Reamas 1 63 n. 14 21
HeaSorlc* 1 116
HeaSo- Scylfingas 4 63 Swedes ; see

Scylfingas
Helm* 1 59 «.
Helmingas the people of Wealhtheow

the Danish queen 14 482
Hemming a kinsman of Offa, king of

the Angles 4 104, 121
Hengest a Danish leader who leads the

fight against Finn's men at Finnsburh

4 143, 151, 156, 187 5 18

Heoden ruler of the Glommas 1 21 n.

Heodeningas 3 36 n.

Heorogar elder brother of Hrothgar 4

61
Heorot the famous hall of Hrothgar the

Danish king, where Beowulf killed

Grendel 1 49 14 148, 502
Heorrenda a minstrel who supplants •

Deor 3 39
Herebeald eldest son of Hrethel the

Geatish king, killed by his brother

Haethcen 11 101
Herefaran* 1 34
Herelingas the Harlungs of M. H.G.

legend ; see Emerca and Fridla 1

112 n.
Here-Scyldingas Danes ; see Scylfingas

4 168
Hetware a Frankish tribe who defeated

the Geats and their king Hygelac 1

33 n. 4 279, 297 ; see iritrod. note to

4F

HeCca* 1 112 «.
Hildeburh a Danish princess, daughter

of Hoc, sister of Hnaef, and wife of

Finn, king of the Frisians 4 131,

174

HliSe 1 116 n.
Hnsef a Danish prince, son of Hoc,

killed by Finn's men 1 29 4 129, 136,

174 5 4
Hocingas a Danish tribe, the people of

Hoc 1 29
Holen* 1 33
Holmrygas 1 21 «.
Hrsedas Goths 1 120 n.
Hrefna-Wudu Ravens' Wood, scene of

a fight between Geats and Swedes 4

324
Hrefnes Holt the same as preceding

name 4 334
Hreosna-Beorh scene of fights between

Geats and Swedes 4 308
Hr§8cyning Eormanric 1 7 n.
HreSel king of the Geats, father of

Hygelac 4 274, 305, 309 14 548
HreS-Gotan 1 57 ; see 1 7 «.
Hreoling 'son of Hrethel,' Haethcen

4 324 ; pi. sons or people of Hrethel,

Geats 4 359
Hringweald* 1 34
Hronas* 1 63
HroSgar king of the Danes, visited by

Beowulf
HroOulf son of Hrothgar's younger

brother Halga 14 502

246

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

Hrunting a sword lent by Unferth to
Beowulf 14 584

Hugas a name given to the Franks 4
284, 295

Hun* 1 33

Hunas Huns, an Asiatic people who
crossed the Don in 375, conquered
the East Goths and settled N. of the
Danube. They reached their greatest
power under Attila 1 18 n., 57

Hundingas 1 23 »., 81

HunferS v. UnferS

Htlngar 1 117 n.

Hunlafing 4 203 n.

Hwala 1 14 »•

Hygelac king of the Geats, son of
Hrethel and uncle of Beowulf

Idumingas 1 87 n.

Incg* 14 320

Incgenbeow* 1 116 n.

Indeas Indians 1 83

Ingeld son of the Heathobard king
Froda, and husband of Freawaru,
daughter of Hrothgar 1 48 4 264

lofor v. Eofor

losep Joseph the Hebrew leader, son of
Jacob 19 474

Iraland Ireland 15 56

Isra(h)elas Israelites, freq. in 19

Iste Ests, Esthonians 1 87 n.

Iftdas Judah the Israelite 19 330

Langbeardan Longobards or Lombards

1 32 n. , 80

Leofsunu a fighter at Maldon 16 244
Leonas a tribe dwelling in S. E. Sweden

1 80 n.
Lid-WIcingas Armoricans, Bretons

1 80 n.
Longbeardan v. Langbeardan

Maccus a fighter at Maldon 16 80

Mseringas 3 19 n.

MseShild a princess 3 14

Meaca* 1 23

Mearchealf* 1 23

Merewioingas Merovingians, Franks

4 302

Mierce Mercians 15 24 16 217
Mimming Waldere's sword, made by

Weland 2 3
Mofdingas* 1 85 n.
Moidas Medes 1 84
Moises Moses, leader of the Israelites

19 215, 352

Myrce, Myrcon v. Mierce
Myrgingas 1 4, 23 n., 84, 85 n., 96

Nsegling Beowulf's sword 14 375
NlShad a king of Germanic legend 2 40

3 5 n.

NorS-Dene North Danes, Danes, 14 165
NorShymbre Northumbrians 16 266
NorSmann Norseman, Norwegian 15
33- 53

Odda father of Godric, Godwine and

Godwig 16 186, 238
Offa (i) king of the Angles 1 35, 37,

38 4 109, 117; (2) a fighter at Maldon

16 5, 198, 230, 286, 288
Ohthere king of the Swedes, son of

Ongentheow 4 327, 331, 399, 413

1*355
Onela a Swedish prince, brother of

Ohthere 4 62, 331
OngenJ>eow king of the Swedes, father

of Ohthere and Onela ; slain by Eofor

the Geat 1 31 Ifreq.
Ordlaf a fighter at Finnsburh 5 17
Oslaf a Danish warrior hostile to Finn
_ 4 208
Oswine* 1 26
6s wold a fighter at Maldon 16 304

Panta the modern river Blackwater, in

Essex 16 68, 97
Peohtas Picts 1 79 n.
Perse Persians 1 84

Raedhere* 1 123 n.

Randhere* 1 123 n.

Randingas* 1 24

Ruben Reuben the Israelite 19 332

Rflgas the Rugii 1 69 n. ; see also

Holmrygas
Rumstan the Rimstein of M. H.G.

legend 1 123 n.
Rumwalas Romans 1 69 n.

Sse-Dene Sea-Danes, Danes 1 28

SseferS v. SigeferS 131

Sceafa 1 32 n.

Sceaf there* 1 32

Scedeland southernmost point of Sweden

4 ign.

Sc5fing Scyld 4 4 n.

Scilling a minstrel 1 103

Scottas Scots, an Irish people who

settled in W. Britain 1 79 15 n, 32

24 9

NAMES OF PERSONS AND PLACES

247

Scride Finnas 'Ski-Finns,' Lapp 1 79
Scyld a legendary Danish king, ancestor

of Hrothgar 4 4 n. , 19, 26
Scyldingas descendants of Scyld, Danes

freq.
Scylfingas name of the royal Swedish

dynasty, Swedes 4 318, 367, 400

14346

Seafola* 1 115
Seaxe Saxons, dwelling near mouth of

Elbe, migrated to S. Britain 1 62 n.

15 70 24 ii
Secca* 1 us
Secgan* 6 25
Sercingas 1 75 «.
Seringas 1 75 n.
Sexum v. Seaxe
Slbyrht a fighter at Maldon, ? brother

of yEthelric 16 282
Sifeca the Sibich of M.H.G. legend

1 116
SigeferS a Danish fighter at Finns-

burh 5 16, 25

Sigehere O.N. Sigarr 1 28 n.
Sigelwaras Ethiopians 19 69 n.
Sigemund the dragon-slaying hero 4

65 «., 74

Simeon the Israelite 19 341
Sturmere in Essex 16 249 «.
SfltJ-Dene South Danes, Danes 1 58
Swsefe Swabians 1 22 n. , 44, 61
Sweon Swedes 1 31 «., 58 4 303, 345,

357

Sweord-Weras* 1 62 n.
SwSorlce Sweden 4 402
Sweo]?eod the Swedish people 4 321
Swerting grandfather of Hygelac the

Geat king 4 427
Sycgum v, Secgan 1 31 «., 62

peodrlc (i) nephew of Eormanric
the Ostrogoth, called Dietrich von
Bern in M.H.G. story 1 115 n. 2
36 3 18 ; (2) king of the Franks,
whose son vanquished Hygelac the
Geat 1 24 ; see introd. note to 4 F

Peod - Scyldingas Danes ; see Scyl-
dingas

Prowendas* 1 64

Purstan father of Wistan 16 298

pyle 1 24 n.

Pyringas Thuringians 1 30 n. , 64

UnferS wit and orator at Heorot 14 i
Unwene* 1 114

Wada Wade the giant, father of

Weland 1 22 n.
Waldere Walther of Aquitaine, the

West-Gothic hero 2 43 ; see introd.

note ib.
Wsegmundingas a noble or royal family

to which Wiglaf and Beowulf belonged

14 350

Wsels father of Sigemund 4 87
Wselsing Sigemund 4 67
Wsernas v. Wernas 1 59
Walas (i) 1 78 n. ; (2) Welsh 15 72

24 9

Wald* 1 30
Wanred a Geat, father of Wulf and

Eofor 4 370
WanrSding Wulf, son of Wanred

4364

Wgalas v. Walas
Wealh]?eow a Helming princess, wife of

Hrothgar the Danish king 14 474,

491
Wederas a name for the Geats 11 100

14 400, 424

Weder-Geatas Geats 14 294
Weland the legendary smith of Germanic

story 2 2 n. , 41 3 i
Wenlas 1 59 n.
Weoxtan v. Wl(g)stan
Wernas 1 25 n.

West-Dene West Danes, Danes 18 55
West-Seaxe West-Saxons, men of

Wessex 15 20, 59
Wlcingas a name for the Heathobards

1 47 »• , 59
Widia an early Gothic hero 1 124 n. ,

130 2 36, 41

WIdsKJ a far-travelled minstrel 1 i
WIg(h)elm 16 300
Wiglaf Beowulfs loyal henchman 14

345
Winedas Wends, Slavs 1 60 «.

Wl(g)stan (i) father of Wiglaf 14 345 ;

(2) a fighter at Maldon, son of Thurstan

16 297
Wlstlawudu ' Vistula-forest, ' scene of a

battle 1 121 n.
Witta* 1 22 n.
WiOergield 1 124 n. ; (2) a Heathobard

warrior 1 124

WiS-Myrgingas 1 118 v. Myrgingas
Wod* 1 30
WSingas* 1 30
Won- -v. Wan-
Wrosnas* 1 33
Wudga v. Widia

248

AN ANGLO-SAXON VERSE-BOOK

Wulf a Geat slain by King Ongentheow
4

Wulfhere* 1 119 ;/.

Wulfingas 1 29 n.

Wulfmser (i) a kinsman of Byrhtnoth
16 113 ; (2) a young fighter at Maldon,
son of Wulfstan 16 155, 183

Wulfstan a warrior who held the bridge

at Maldon 16 75, 79, 155
Wyrmhere 1 119

Ymbras 1 32 n.
Ytan v. Eotan

Printed in Great Britain by R. & R. CLAKK, LIMITED, Edinburgh.

Sedgefield, W.

An Anglo-Saxon verse book

PR
1505

PC L INSTITUTE

OE MEDIAEVAL STUDIES
59 QUEEN'S PARK

[TORONTO 5t CANADA