GILDERSLEEVE'S LATIN GBAMMAE Vov \ GILDERSLEEVE'S LATIN GRAMMAR THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED BY B. L. GILDERSLEEVE PROFESSOR OP GREEK IN THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY AND GONZALEZ LODGE ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OP LATIN IN BRYN MAWR COLLEGE 3Lont»0n M ACM ILL AN AND CO., LIMITED 1903 PREFACE. THE first edition of this LATIN GRAMMAR appeared in 1867, the second in 1872 ; the third edition, carefully revised and very much enlarged, is herewith presented to the public. In the preparation of this third edition the office of the senior collaborator has been chiefly advisory, except in the Syntax. In the syntax nearly everything that pertains to the history of usage has been brought together by Professor LODGE ; but for all deviations from the theory of former editions we bear a joint responsibility. A manual that has held its place, however modest, for more than a quarter of a century, hardly needs an elaborate exposition of the methods followed ; but as the new gram- mar embraces a multitude of details that were not taken up in the old grammar, it has been thought fit that Pro- fessor LODGE should indicate the sources of the notes with which he has enriched the original work. B. L. GlLDERSLEEVE. GONZALEZ LODGE. August 1, 1895. THE following supplementary note may serve to embody a partial bibliography of the more important works used in this revision, and some necessary explanations of the method : Fairly complete bibliographies of works on Latin Etymology and Syntax may be found in REISIG'S Vorlesungen uber lateinische Sprachwissenschaft (new edition, by HAGEN, SCHMALZ, and LANDGRAF, 1881-1888), and in the Lateinische Grammatik of STOLZ and SCHMALZ (in MULLER'S Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft; 3d edition, 1890). Important also are the Grammars of KUHNER (1877, 1878) * and ROBY (1881, 1882) ; though many statements in both, but especially in the former, must be corrected in the light of more recent study. Some indications of more modern theories may be found in * A new Historical Grammar, by STOLZ, SCHMALZ, LANDGRAF, and WAQENEK, was announced by TKUBNEK in 1891 IV PKEFACE. the Erlduterungen zur lateinischen Grammatik of DEECKE (1893). Many matters of importance both in Etymology and Syntax are treated in the Archiv fur lateinische Lexicographie, and the construc- tions with individual words are often well discussed in KEEBS' Anti- barbarus der lateinischen Sprache (6th edition, by SCHMALZ, 1886). For the accentuation and pronunciation of Latin we have also CORSSEN'S Aussprache, Vocalismus und Betonung der lateinischen Sprache (1868, 1870), and SEELMANN'S Die Aussprache des Latein (1885). For the Etymology we must refer to BUCHELER'S Grundriss der lateinischen Declination (3d edition, by WINDEKILDE, 1879) and to SCHWEIZER-SIDLER'S Lateinische Grammatik (1888) ; also to many articles in various journals, most of which are given by STOLZ. Indis- pensable is NEUE'S Formenlehre der lateinischen Sprache, of which the second volume of the third edition has already appeared (1892) and the first parts of the third volume (1894), under the careful revision of WAGENEE; also GEOEGES' Lexikon der lateinischen Wortformen (1890). For the Formation of Words and the relation of Latin forms to those of the related languages we have HENRY'S Precis de Grammaire Com- paree and BRUGMANN'S Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik, both now accessible in translations. On these, in connection with SCHWEIZER- SIDLEE, the chapter on the Formation of Words has been based. In the historical treatment of the Syntax we must still rely in large measure on DRAEGER'S Historische Syntax der lateinischen Sprache (2d edition, 1878, 1881), faulty and inaccurate though it often is : many of the false statements have been corrected on the basis of more recent individual studies by SCHMALZ ; but even SCHMALZ is not always correct, and many statements of his treatise have been silently emended in the present book. For the theoretical study of some problems of Latin Syntax HAASE'S Vorlesungen uber lateinische Sprachwissenschaft (1880) should not be overlooked. Since the appearance of the second edition of SCHMALZ, in 1890, considerable progress has been made in the various journals and other publications, as may be seen from DEECKE'S summary in BURSIAN'S Jahresbericht for 1893. Every effort has been made to incorporate in this grammar the main results of these studies as far as practicable. We may also draw attention to the following important articles, among others, some of which are mentioned in the books above referred to : WOLFFLIN'S numerous articles in the Archiv ; THIELMANN'S articles in the Archiv on habSre with Perfect Participle Passive, and on the Reciprocal Relation ; LANDGRAF'S articles on the Figura Etymologica, in the second volume of the Acta Seminarii Erlangensis, and on the Future Participle and the Final Dative, in the Archiv; BALE'S treatise on The Cum Constructions, attacking the theories of HOFFMANN (Latein- ische Zeitpartikeln, 1874) and LUBBERT (Die Syntax von Quom, 1869), PREFACE. V HOFFMANN'S reply to HALE (1891), and WETZEL'S Der Streit zwischen HOFFMANN und HALE (1892) ; DAHL'S Die lateinische Partikel ut (1882), with GUTJAHR-PROBST'S Der Oebrauch von ut bei Terenz (1888) ; ZIM- MERMANN'S article on quod und quia im alteren Latein (1880) ; SCHERER'S article on quando, in Studemund's Studien ; MORRIS'S articles on the Sentence Question in Plautus and Terence in the A.J.P. (vols. x. and xi.) ; HALE'S articles on the Sequence of Tenses in the A.J.P. (vols. viii. and ix.), containing a discussion of the earlier Literature ; ELMER'S articles on the Latin Prohibitive in A.J.P. (vol. xv.) A bibliography of the treatises on Prosody and Versification may be found in GLEDITSCH'S treatise in the second volume of MULLER'S Handbuch ; this, with PLESSIS' Metrique Orecque et Latine (1889), has been made the basis of the chapter on Prosody ; but in the treatment of early metres, regard has been had to KLOTZ (Altromische JUetrik, 1890), and to LINDSAY'S recent papers on the Saturnian in the A.J.P. (vol. xiv.). In the matter of the order of words we have followed WEIL'S treatise on the Order of Words, translated by SUPER (1887). The question of the correct measurement of hidden quantities is still an unsettled one in Latin ; for the sake of consistency the usage of MARX, Hulfsbuchlein fur die Aussprache der lateinischen Vokale in positionslangen Silben (2d edition, 1889) has been followed. The quotations have been made throughout from the Teubner Text editions except as follows : Plautus is cited from the Triumvirate edition of RITSCHL ; Vergil from the Editio Maior of RIBBECK ; Ovid and Terence from the Tauchnitz Texts ; Horace from the Editio Minor of KELLER and HOLDER ; Lucretius from the edition of MUNRO; Ennius and Lucilius from the editions of L. MULLER ; fragmentary Scenic Poets from the edition of RIBBECK. Special care has been taken to make the quotations exact both in spelling and wording ; and any variation in the spelling of individual words is therefore due to the texts from which the examples are drawn. Where it has been necessary to modify the quotations in order to make them suitable for citation, we have enclosed within square brackets words occurring in different form in the text, and in paren- theses words that have been inserted ; where the passage would not yield to such treatment, Cf. has been inserted before the reference. We have not thought it necessary to add the references in the Prosody except in the case of some of the citations from early Latin. In the spelling of Latin words used out of quotation, as a rule u and v have been followed by o rather than by u ; but here the require- ments of clearness and the period of the language have often been allowed to weigh. Otherwise we have followed in the main BRAM< BACH'S Hulfsbuchlein fur lateinische Rechtschreibung (translation by MCCABE, 1877). G. L. CONTENTS ETYMOLOGY. SECTION Letters and Syllables . 1-15 Alphabet, 1; Vowels, 2, 3; Diphthongs, 4; Conso- nants, 6, 7 ; Phonetic Variations, 8, 9 ; Syllables, 10, 11 ; Quantity, 12-14 ; Accentuation, 15. Parts of Speech 16 Inflection of the Substantive 17-71 Definitions, 18 ; Gender, 19-21 ; Number, 22 ; Cases, 23-25 ; Declensions, 26 ; Endings, 27 ; First Declension, 29, 30 ; Second Declension, 31-34 ; Third Declension, 35-60 ; Fourth Declension, 61, 62 ; Fifth Declension, 63, 64 ; Greek Substantives, 65, 66 ; Ir- regular Substantives, 67-71. Inflection of the Adjective 72-90 Definition, 72 ; First and Second Declension, 73- 76; Pronominal Adjectives, 76; Third Declension, 77-83 ; Irregular Adjectives, 84, 85 ; Comparison of Adjectives, 86-90. Adverbs 91 93 Formation of Adverbs, 91, 92 ; Comparison, 93. Numerals 94-98 Cardinals, 94 ; Ordinals, 94 ; Distributives, 97 ; Adverbs, 98. Pronouns ... Personal, 100-102 ; Determinative, 103 ; Demon- strative, 104 ; Eelative, 105 ; Interrogative, 106 ; In- definites, 107; Adjectives, 108; Correlative, 109-111. Inflection of the Verb 112-175 Definitions, 112, 113; Endings, 114, 115; Inflection of ease, 116, 117; of prodesse, 118; of posse, 119. Reg- ular Verbs, 120-167; Division, 120; Rules for forming Tenses, 121. First Conjugation, 122; Second Conju- gation, 123, 124; Third Conjugation, 125,126; Fourth viii CONTENTS. SECTION Conjugation, 127 ; Deponents, 128 ; Periphrastic, 129; Notes, 130, 131. Formation of the Stems, 132- 135; Change in Conjugation, 136; List of Verbs, 137-167. Irregular Verbs, 168-174; Ire, 169, 2; quire, nequlre, 170; ferre, 171; edere, 172; fieri, 173; velle, n5lle, malle, 174; Defective Verbs, 175. Formation of Words 176-200 Simple Words, 179-192; Substantives, 180, 181; Adjectives, 182; Substantives without Suffixes, 183; Suffixes, 184-189; Verbs, 190-192 ; Compound Words, 193-200; Substantives, 194-198; Verbs, 199, 200. SYNTAX. Simple Sentence . 202-471 Subject, 203, 204; Predicate, 205-209; Concord, 210, 211; Voices, 212-221. Tenses, 222-252; Present, 227-230; Imperfect, 231-234; Perfect, 235-240; Plu- perfect, 241; Future, 242, 243; Future Perfect, 244, 245; Periphrastic, 246-251; Tenses in Letters, 252. Moods, 253-283; Indicative, 254; Subjunctive, 255- 265 ; Imperative, 266-275 ; Tenses in Moods and Verbal Substantives, 276-283. Simple Sentence Expanded. 284-471 Multiplication of the Subject . . . . . . 285-287 Qualification of the Subject .'..... 288-325 Adjectives, 289-303; Numerals, 292-295; Compara- tives and Superlatives, 296-303: Pronouns, 304-319; Personal. 304; Demonstrative, 305-307; Determina- tive and Reflexive, 308-311 ; Possessive, 312 ; Indefi- nite, 313-319; Apposition, 320-325; Predicative Attri- bution and Apposition, 325. Multiplication of Predicate 326 Qualification of Predicate 327-449 The Cases 328-418 Accusative, 328-343; Dative, 344-359; Genitive, 360-383; Ablative, 384-410; Locative, 411; Preposi- tions, 412-418; with Accusative, 416; with Ablative, 417; with Accusative and Ablative, 418. Infinitive 419-424 Subject, 422; Object, 423; Predicate, 424. CONTENTS. IX SECTION Gerund and Gerundive 425-433 Genitive, 428; Dative, 429; Accusative, 430; Abla- tive, 431 ; with Prepositions, 432, 433. Supine 434-436 Accusative, 435; Ablative, 430. Participles 437, 438 Adverbs 439-449 Negatives, 441-449. Incomplete (Interrogative) Sentence 450-471 Direct Simple Questions, 453-457; Direct Disjunc- tive Questions, 458, 459 ; Indirect Questions, 460; Moods in Direct, 402-466; Moods in Indirect, 467. Compound Sentence 472-670 Coordinate Sentence 473-503 Copulative, 474-482; Adversative, 483-491 ; Dis- junctive, 492-497; Causal and Illative, 498-503. Subordinate Sentences ....... 504-670 Moods in, 508; Sequence of Tenses, 509-519; Re- flexive in, 520-522. Object Sentences 523-537 Introduced by quod, 524, 525 ; in Accusative and Infinitive, 526, 527, 532-535; in Nominative and Infinitive, 528; in Participle, 536, 537. Causal Sentences ........ 538-542 Introduced by quod, quia, etc., 539-541 ; by quod, with verbs of Emotion, 542. Sentences of Design and Tendency .... 543-558 Final, 544-550; Pure Final, 545; Complementary Final, 546-549; After verbs of Fear, 550. Consecutive, 551; Pure Consecutive, 552; Comple- mentary Consecutive, 553-557; Exclamatory Ques- tions, 558. Temporal Sentences 559-588 Antecedent Action, 561-567; Iterative Action, 566, 567; Contemporaneous Action, 568-573; Subsequent Action, 574-577 ; Sentences with cum, 578-588. Conditional Sentences 589-602 Logical, 595; Ideal, 596; Unreal, 597; Incomplete, 598-601 ; Of Comparison, 602. Concessive Sentences .... 603-609 X CONTENTS. SECTION Relative Sentences . . 610-637 Concord, 614-621 ; Tenses, 622, 623 ; Moods, 624- 637. Comparative Sentences 638-644 Correlative, 642 ; with atque or ac, 643 ; with quam, 644. The Abridged Sentence 645-663 Historical Infinitive, 647 ; Gratis Obllqua, 648 ; Moods in, 650-652; Tenses in, 653-655; Conditional Sentences in, 656-659 : Pronouns, 660 ; Partial Ob- liquity, 662, 663. Participial Sentences 664-670 Arrangement of Words and Clauses .... 671-687 Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric 688-700 Principal Rules of Syntax . • . . Pp. 437-444 PROSODY. Quantity 702-717 General Rules, 702-706 : of Final Syllables, 707- 713; of Stem Syllables, 714 ; of Compounds, 715 ; in- Early Latin, 716, 717. Figures of Prosody 718-728 Versification 729-827 Definition, 729-754 ; Versus Italicus, 755 ; Saturnian Verse, 756; Iambic Rhythms, 757-767; Trochaic Rhythms, 768-776 ; Anapaestic Rhythms, 777-782; Dactylic Rhythms, 783-789 ; Logacedic Rhythms, 790-805 ; Cretic and Bacchic Rhythms, 806-814 ; Ionic Rhythms, 815-819 ; Compound Verses, 820- 823 ; Cantica, 824, 825 ; Metres of HORACE, 826, 827. PAGES Appendix 491-493 Roman Calendar, Roman Weights and Measures, Roman Money, Roman Names. Index of Verbs 494-502 General Index . . 503-546 LATIN GRAMMAR. ETYMOLOGY. Alphabet. 1. THE Latin alphabet has twenty-three letters : ABCDEFGHI KLM NOPQRSTVXYZ REMARKS. — i. The sounds represented by C and K were originally distinct, C having the sound of G, but they gradually approximated each other, until C supplanted K except in a few words, such as Kalendae, Kaeso, which were usually abbreviated, Kal., K. The orig- inal force of C is retained only in C. (for Gains) and Cn. (for Gnaeus). 2. J, the consonantal form of I, dates from the middle ages. V repre- sented also the vowel u in the Latin alphabet ; and its resolution into two letters — V for the consonant, and U for the vowel — also dates from the middle ages. For convenience, V and U are still distinguished in this grammar. 3. Y and Z were introduced in the time of Cicero to transliterate Greek v and J. In early Latin « was represented by u (occasionally by i or oi), and J by ss or s. Z had occurred in the earliest times, but had been lost, and its place in the alphabet taken by G, which was introduced after C acquired the sound of K. NOTE. — The Latin names for the letters were : a, be, ce, de, e, ef, ge, ha, i, ka, el, em, en, o, pe, qu (= cu), er, es, te, U, ex (ix), to be pronounced according to the rules given ia 3, 7. For Y the sound was used, for Z the Greek name (zSta). Vowels. 2. The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, (y) ; and are divided : 1. According to their quality (i.e., the position of the organs used in pronunciation), into guttural (or back), a, o, u ; palatal (or front), e, i, (y). 2. According to their quantity or prolongation (i. e., the time required for pronunciation), into **, 1512 long' ( ~~ ) ; short' ( w )' 2 VOWELS — DIPHTHONGS — CONSONANTS. REMARK. — Vowels whose quantity shifts in poetry are called com- mon (see 13), and are distinguished thus : ^, by preference short ; ^, by preference long. 3, Sounds of the Vowels. a = a in father. o = o in bone. 5 = e in prey. u = oo in moon. I = i in caprice. y = u in sur (French), German fl. REMARK. — The short sounds are only less prolonged in pronuncia- tion than the long sounds, and have no exact English equivalents. Diphthongs. 4. There are but few diphthongs or double sounds in Latin. The theory of the diphthong requires that both elements be heard in a slur. The tendency in Latin was to reduce diphthongs to simple sounds ; for example, in the last century of the republic ae was gliding into e, which took its place completely in the third century A. D. H«nce arose frequent variations in spelling : as glaeba and glSba, sod; so oboedire and obedire, obey ; faenum (foemun) and fSnum, hay. ae = aye (ah-eh). ei = ei in feint (drawled). oe = oy in boy. eu = eu in Spanish de«da (Sh-oo). au = ou in OUT. (ui = we, almost). NOTE.— Before the time of the Gracchi we find ai and oi instead of ae and oe. 5. The sign •• (Diwresis — Greek =separatwri) over the second vowel shows that each sound is to be pronounced separately ; S8r, air ; Oenomatis, aloe. Consonants. 6. Consonants are divided : 1. According to the principal organs by which they are pronounced, into Labials (lip-sounds) : b, p, (ph), f, v, m. Dentals (tooth-sounds): d, t, (tb.), 1, n, r, s. Gutturals (throat-sounds) : g, c, k, qu, (ch), h, n (see 7). NOTE.— Instead of dental and guttural, the terms lingual and palatal axe often used. 2. According to their prolongation, into A. Semi-vowels : of which 1, m, n, r, are liquids (m and n being nasals). h is a breathing. 8 is a sibilant. CONSONANTS — PHONETIC VARIATIONS. 3 B. Mutes : to which belong P-mutes, p, b, (ph), f, labials. T-mutes, t, d, (th), dentals. K-mutes, k, c, qu, g, (ch), gutturals. Those on the same line are said to be of the same organ. . Mutes are further divided into Tenues (thin, smooth) : p, t, k, c, qu, hard (surd). Mediae (middle) : b, d, g, soft (sonant). (Asplratae (aspirate, rough): ph, th, ch,] aspirate. Those on the same line are said to be of the same order. The aspirates were introduced in the latter part of the second cen- tury B. C. in the transliteration of Greek words, and thence extended to some pure Latin words ; as, pulcher, Gracchus. 3. Double consonants are : z = dz in acfee ; x — cs (ks), gs ; i and u between two vowels are double sounds, half vowel, half consonant. Sounds of the Consonants. 7. The consonants are sounded as in English, with the following exceptions : C is hard throughout = k. Ch is not a genuine Latin combination (6, 2). In Latin words it is a k ; in Greek words a kh, commonly pronounced as ch in German. G is hard throughout, as in get, give. H at the beginning of a word is but slightly pronounced ; in the middle of a word it is almost imperceptible. I consonant (J) has the sound of a broad y ; nearly like y in yule. N has a guttural nasal sound before c, g, q, as in anchor, anguish. Qu = kw (nearly) ; before o, qu = c. In early Latin qu was not fol- lowed by u. Later, when o was weakened to u, qu was replaced by c ; thus quoin became cum. Still later qu replaced c, yielding quum. E is trilled. 8 and X are always hard, as in hiss, aa;e. T is hard throughout ; never like t in nation. TT consonant (V) is pronounced like the vowel, but with a slur. In the third century A. D. it had nearly the sound of our w. In Greek it was frequently transliterated by Ofi ; so OvaXe'pios = Valerius. Phonetic Variations in Vowels and Consonants. 8. Vowels. i. Weakening. — In the formation of words from roots or stems short vowels show a tendency to weaken ; that is, a tends to become e 4 PHONETIC VARIATIONS. and then i, or o and then u, while o tends towards e or i, and u towards i This occurs most frequently in compound words, to a less degree in words formed by suffixes. Diphthongs are less frequently weakened and long vowels very rarely. The principal rules for these changes are as follows, but it must be remembered that to all there are more or less frequent exceptions : A. — i. In the second part of compound words, and in reduplicated words, the root-vowel a is weakened to 6, which usually passes over into i in open syllables (11, R.), and often to fi before 1 and labial mutes : c5n-scend5 (scando) ; con-cido (cado) ; d5-sulto (salt5) ; fefelll (falls). 2. As final vowel of the stem a is weakened in the first part of a com- pound word, usually to i, rarely to 6 or u: aquili-fer (aquila-) ; causi-dicus (causa-). 3. In or before suffixes, a becomes I: domi-tus (doma-). NOTE.— A frequently resists change, especially in verbs of the First and Second Conjugations : as, sg-parare (parare) ; circum-iacere (iacere) ; so satis-facere (facere) and others. E. — i. In the second part of compound words, root vowel 6 is usu- ally retained in a close (11, E.) syllable, and weakened to I in an open syllable ; but it is invariably retained before r : in-flecto (fleets) ; ob- tineo (teneS) ; ad-verto (verto). 2. In or before suffixes, and in the final syllable of a word, it also becomes I : geni-tor (gene-) ; un-decim (decem). I. — At the end of a word I is changed to 6 : mare (mari). 0. — i. In composition final stem-vowel 5 is usually weakened to I ; before labials sometimes to u : agri-cola (agro-) ; auru-fex (usually auri- fex). 2. In suffixes, and in final syllables, it is weakened to I : amlci-tia (amico-) ; gracili-s (also gracilu-s). TT. — In composition final stem-vowel u is usually weakened to I; the same weakening occurs sometimes within a word or before a suffix : mani-festuB (also manu-fSstus) ; lacrima (early lacruma). AE, ATT. — In the second part of a compound word root-diphthong ae is usually weakened to I, but often there is no change ; au is occasion- ally changed to fl : ex-qulro (quaerS) ; con-cludS (claudo). 2. Omission. — Vowels are frequently omitted both in simple and compound words, either within the word (syncope) or at the end (apo- cope) : dextera and dextra ; princeps (for primceps, from prlmiceps) ; pergS (for perrego) ; ut (utl) ; neu (neve). 3. Epenthesis. — Vowels are sometimes inserted to ease the pronun- ciation, but usually before liquids or in foreign words : ager (agro-) see 31 ; DaphinS (= Daphne) ; drachuma (= drachma). 4. Assimilation. — Two vowels in adjoining syllables tend to become like each other; this assimilation is usually regressive (i. e., of the first to the second), especially when 1 separates them ; it is rarely pro- gressive. Compare facilis with facul, familia with famulus, bene with bonus. PHONETIC VARIATIONS. 5 5. A vowel before a liquid tends to become u, less often o or e : adulescens and adolescens ; vulgus and volgus ; decumus (decem) ; com- pare tempus with temporis ; peperi (from pari5), etc. 9. Consonants. 1. Assimilation. — When two consonants come together in Latin, they tend to assimilate one to the other. This assimilation is usu- ally regressive ; sometimes it is progressive. It is either complete, that is, the two consonants become the same ; or partial, that is, the one is made of the same order or same organ as the other. These changes occur both in inflection and in composition, but they are especially noteworthy in the last consonant of prepositions in composition. Scrip-turn for scrib-tum (regressive partial) ; ac-cedere for ad-c5dere (regressive complete) ; cur-sum for cur-tum (progressive partial) ; celer- rimus for celer-simus (progressive complete). 2. Partial Assimilation. — (a) The sonants g and b, before the surd t, or the sibilant s, often become surds (c, p ) ; the surds p, c, t before liquids sometimes become sonants (b, g, d) ; the labials p, b before n become m; the labial m before the gutturals c, q, g, h, i (j), the dentals t, d, s, and the labials f, v, becomes n ; the dental n before labials p, b, m, becomes m ; rgc-tum (for r6g-tum) ; scrip-si (for scrlb-si) ; seg-mentum (for sec-mentum) ; som-nus (for sop-mis) ; prin-ceps (for prim-ceps). NOTE. — Similar is the change of q (qu) to c before t or s : COC-tum (for coqu-tum). (b) After 1 and r, t of the suffixes tor, tus, turn, becomes a by progres- sive assimilation : cur-sum (for cur-tum). 3. Complete Assimilation. — There are many varieties, but the most important principle is that a mute or a liquid tends to assimilate to a liquid and to a sibilant : puella (puer) ; cur-rere (for cur-sere) ; cSs-si (for c6d-si) ; corolla (corona), etc. 4. Prepositions. — Ab takes the form a before m or v, and in a-ful ; appears as au in au-fero, au-fugio ; as abs before c, t ; as as before p. Ad is assimilated before c, g, 1, p, r, s, t, with more or less regularity ; before gn, sp, sc, st, it often appears as a. Ante appears rarely as anti. Cum appears as com before b, m, p ; con before c, d, f, g, i, q, s, v ; co before gn, n ; assimilated sometimes before 1 and r. Ex becomes S before b, d, g, i (j), 1, m, n, r, v ; ef or ec, before f. In usually becomes im before b, m, p ; before 1, r it is occasionally assimilated ; the same holds good of the negative prefix in. Ob is usually assimi- lated before c, f, g, p ; appears as o in o-mitto, o-perio, obs in obs-olesco, and os in ostendo. Sub is assimilated before c, f, g, p, r ; appears as sus in a few words, as sus-cipio ; occasionally su before s, as su-spicio. Trans sometimes becomes tra before d, i (j), n ; tran before s. Amb- (insepa- rable) loses b before a consonant, and am is sometimes assimilated. Cir- cum sometimes drops m before i. Dis becomes dif before f ; dir before a 6 PHONETIC VARIATIONS — SYLLABLES. vowel ; di before consonants, except c, p, q, t, s, followed by a vowel, when it is usually unchanged. The d of red and s6d is usually dropped before consonants. NOTE.— In early Latin assimilation is much less common than in the classical period. 5. Dissimilation. — To avoid the harshness of sound when two sylla- bles begin with the same letter, the initial letter of the one is often changed ; this is true especially of liquids, but occasionally of other letters : singu-la-ris (for singu-la-lis) ; men-dig (for medl-die). KOTK. — This principle often regulates the nse of -bnun or -bulum, and of -cram or -culum in word formation (181, 6) : compare perlculum with simulacrum. 6. Omission. — (a) When a word closes with a doubled consonant or a group of consonants, the final consonant is regularly dropped in Latin ; sometimes after the preceding consonant has been assimilated to it. In the middle of a word, after a long syllable, ss and 11 are sim- plified ; 11 is sometimes simplified after a short vowel, which is then lengthened if the syllable is accented (compensatory lengthening) ; but if the syllable is unaccented, such lengthening need not take place. In this case other doubled consonants may also be simplified. fel (for fell) ; lac (for lact) ; vigil (for vigils) ; lapis (for lapid-s, lapiss) ; mlsi (for mis-si) ; villa and vilicus ; but currus and curulis. NOTE. — X is retained, even after 1 and r, as in calx, arx ; also ps, bs, as in stirps, urbs ; ms is found in hiems only. (&) In the tendency to easier pronunciation consonants are often dropped both at the beginning and in the middle of a word : stimulus (for stigmulus) ; pastor (for pasctor) ; ai5 (for ahi8) ; natus (for gnatus, retained in early Latin, rarely later) ; latus (for tlatus), etc. 7. Epenthesis. — Between m and 1, m and s, m and t, a p is generated : ez-em-p-lum (ex-im5) ; com-p-sl (com.5) ; em-p-tus (em5). 8. Metathesis or transposition of consonants occurs sometimes in Latin, especially in Perfect and Supine forms : cerno ; Pf . crg-vl, etc. Syllables. 10. The syllable is the unit of pronunciation ; it consists of a vowel, or a vowel and one or more consonants. A word has as many syllables as it contains separate vowels and diphthongs. In dividing a word into syllables, a consonant, between two vowels, belongs to the second : a-mo, I love ; li-xa, a sutler. SYLLABLES — QUANTITY. 7 Any combination of consonants that can begin a word (including mn, under Greek influence) belongs to the fol- lowing vowel ; in other combinations the first consonant belongs to the preceding vowel : a-sper, rough; fau-stus, lucky ; li-bri, looks ; a-nmis, river. REMARKS. — i. The combinations incapable of beginning a word are (a) doubled consonants : sic-cus, dry ; (b) a liquid and a consonant : al-mus, fostering ; am-bo, both ; an-guis, snake ; ar-bor, tree. 2. Compounds are treated by the best grammarians as if their parts were separate words : ab-igo, I drive off ; rfis-publica, commonwealth. 11. The last syllable of a word is called the ultimate (ultima, last) ; the next to the last the penult (paene, almost, and ultima) ; the one before the penult, the antepenult (ante, before, and paenultima). REMARK. — A .syllable is said to be open when it ends with a vowel ; close, when it ends with a consonant. Quantity. 12. i. A syllable is said to be long by nature, when it contains a long vowel or diphthong : mos, custom ; caelum, heaven. REMARKS. — r. A vowel before nf, ns, gm, gn, is long by nature : Infelix, unlucky ; mensa, table ; agnien, train ; agnus, lamb. In many cases, however, the n has disappeared from the written word ; so in some substantival terminations : 5s (Ace. PI., 2d decl.), fis (Ace. PI., 4th decl.) ; in adjectives in osus (f5rm5sus, shapely, for fSrmSnsus) ; in the numerical termination Ssimus (= Snsimus). See 95, N. 5. 2. Before i consonant (j) a vowel is long by nature : PompSius, Pompey ; except in compounds of iugum, yoke (bl-iugus, two-horse), and in a few other words. NOTE.— From about 134 to about 74 B. C. a, 8, u, were often represented by aa, 66, liu ; I by ei. From the time of Augustus to the second century I was indicated by a lengthened I. From Sulla's time until the third century long vowels (rarely, however, I) were indicated by an Apex ('). 2. A syllable is said to be long by position, when a short vowel is followed by two or more consonants, or a double consonant : ars, art ; cdllum, neck ; abrumpo, / break off ; p6r mare, through the sea ; nex, murder. 8 ACCENTUATION. 3. A syllable is said to be short when it contains a short vowel, which is not followed by two or more consonants : Idcus, place ; tabula, picture. REMARK. — A vowel is short by nature when followed by another vowel, or by nt, nd: d6us, God; innocentia, innocence; amandus, to be loved. 13. A syllable ending in a short vowel, followed by a mute with 1 or r, is said to be common (anceps, doubtful) : ten.6- brae, darkness. REMARK. — In prose such syllables are always short. In poetry they were short in early times, common in the Augustan period. 14. Every diphthong, and every vowel derived from a diphthong, or contracted from other vowels, is long: saevus, cruel; conclude, I shut up (from claudo, I shut); cogo (from co-ago), / drive together. Accentuation. 15. i. Dissyllabic words have the accent or stress on the penult : 6qu6s ( = equus), horse. 2. Polysyllabic words have the accent on the penult, when the penult is long ; on the antepenult, when the penult is short or common : mandare, to commit ; mandere, to chew ; intigrum, entire; circumdare, to surround; sup6rstites, survivors. REMARKS. — i. The little appendages (enclitics), que, ve, ne, add an accent to the ultimate of words accented on the antepenult : luminaque, and lights ; fluminave, or rivers ; v6merene 1 from a ploughshare ? Dis- syllables and words accented on the penult are said to shift their accent to the final syllable before an enclitic : egomet, I indeed ; amareve, or to love, ; but it is more likely that the ordinary rule of accentuation was followed. 2. Compounds (not prepositional) of facere and dare retain the accent on the verbal form : calefacit, venumdare. 3. Vocatives and genitives of substantives in ius of the second de- clension, as well as genitives of substantives in ium, retain the accent on the same syllable as the nominative : Vergill. NOTE.— Other exceptions will be noted as they occur. In the older language the accent was not bounded by the antepenult : accipi5 taccipio1, concutio iccncutio). PARTS OF SPEECH — INFLECTION. Parts of Speech. 16. The Parts of Speech are the Noun (Substantive and Adjective), the Pronoun, the Verb, and the Particles (Ad- verb, Preposition, and Conjunction), defined as follows : 1 . The Substantive gives a name : vir, a man ; Codes, Codes ; donum, a gift. 2. The Adjective adds a quality to the Substantive : bonus vir, a good man. 3. The Pronoun points out without describing : hie, this ; ille, that ; ego, /. 4. The Verb expresses a complete thought, whether asser- tion, wish, or command ; amat, he loves ; amet, may he love ; ama, love thou ! 5. The Adverb shows circumstances. 6. The Preposition shows local relation. 7. The Conjunction shows connection. REMARKS. — i. Substantive is short for noun-substantive, and ad- jective for noun-adjective. Substantives are often loosely called nouns. 2. The Interjection is either a mere cry of feeling : Sh\ ah ! and does not belong to language, or falls under one of the above-mentioned classes. 3. The Particles are mainly mutilated forms of the noun and pro- noun. NOTES.— 1. The difference between substantive and adjective is largely a difference of mobility ; that is, the substantive is fixed in its application and the adjective is general. 2. Noun and pronoun have essentially the same inflection ; but they are commonly separated, partly on account of the difference in signification, partly on account of certain peculiarities of the pronominal forme. Inflection. 17. Inflection (Inflexio, bending) is that change in the form of a word (chiefly in the end) which shows a change in the relations of that word. The noun, pronoun, and verb are inflected ; the particles are not capable of further inflection. The inflection of nouns and pronouns is called declension, and nouns and pronouns are said to be declined. The inflection of verbs is called conjugation, and verbs are said to be conjugated. IO THE SUBSTANTIVE — GENDER. The Substantive. 18. A Substantive is either concrete or abstract ; concrete when it gives the name of a person or thing ; abstract when it gives the name of a quality ; as amicitia, friendship. Concrete substantives are either proper or common : Proper when they are proper, or peculiar, to certain per- sons, places, or things: Horatius, Horace; Neapolis, Naples; Padus, Po. Common when they are common to a whole class : dominus, a lord ; urbs, a city ; amnis, a river. Gender of Substantives. 19. For the names of animate beings, the gender is deter- mined by the signification ; for things and qualities, by the termination. Names of males are masculine ; names of females, femi- nine. Masculine : Romulus; luppiter; vir, man; equus, horse. Feminine : Cornelia; luno ; femina, woman; equa, mare. 20. Some classes of words, without natural gender, have their gender determined by the signification : 1. All names of months and winds, most names of rivers, and many names of mountains are masculine ; as : Aprllis, April, the opening month ; Aquilo, the north wind; Albis, the River Elbe ; Athos, Mount Athos. REMARKS. — i. Names of months, winds, and rivers were looked upon as adjectives in agreement with masculine substantives under- stood (mgnsis, month ; ventns, wind ; fluvius, amnis, river). 2. Of the rivers, Allia, Lethe, Matrona, Sagra, Styx are feminine ; Albula, Acheron, Garumna vary, being sometimes masculine, some- times feminine. 3. Of the mountains, Alpgs, the Alps, is feminine ; so, too, sundry (Greek) names in a (G. ae), 6 (G. 5s) : Aetna (usually), Calpe", Cyllene, Hybla, Ida, Ossa (usually), Oeta (usually), Bhodope, PholoS, PyrSne, and Carambis, Peloris. Pelion and SSracte (usually), and names of moun- tains in a (G. orum), as Maenala (G. Maenalorum), are neuter. II. Names of countries (terrae, fern.), islands (insulae, fern.), cities (urbes, fern.), plants (plantae, fern.}, and trees GENDER — NUMBER, II (arbores, fern.), are feminine: Aegyptus, Egypt ; Rhodus, Rhodes ; pirus, a pear-tree ; abies, a fir-tree. REMARKS. — i. Names of countries and islands in us (os) (Gr. i) are masculine, except Aegyptus, Chius, Chersongsus, Cyprus, Delos, Epfrus, Lemnos, Lesbos, Peloponnesus, Rhodus, Sanios, Bosporus (the country). 2. Many Greek names of cities follow the termination. Towards the end of the republic many feminine names change the ending -us to -urn and become neuter : Abydus and Abydum, Saguntus and Saguntum. 3. Most names of trees with stems in -tro (N. -ter) are masculine : oleaster, wild olive ; pinaster, wild pine. So also most shrubs : dumus, bramble-bush ; rims, sumach. Neuter are acer, maple ; laser, a plant ; papaver, poppy (also masc. in early Latin) ; r5bur, oak; siler, willow; siser, sMrret (occasionally masc.) ; euber, cork-tree ; tuber, mushroom. III. All indeclinable substantives, and all words and phrases treated as indeclinable substantives, are neuter : fas, right; a longum, a long; scire tuum, thy knowing ; triste vale, a sad "farewell." 21. i. Substantives which have but one form for mascu- line and feminine are said to be of common gender : clvis, citizen (male or female) ; comes, companion ; iudex, judge. 2. Substantlva mobilia are words of the same origin, whose different terminations designate difference of gender : ma- gister, master, teacher ; magistra, mistress ; servus, serva, slave (masc. and fern.) ; victor, victrlx, conqueror (masc. and fern.). 3. If the male and female of animals have but one desig- nation, mas, male, and femina, female, are added, when it is necessary to be exact : pavO mas (masculus), peacock ; pavO femina, peahen. These substantives are called epicene (eiriKoiva, utrlque generl communia, common to each gender). Number. 22. In Latin there are two numbers t the Singular, denoting one ; the Plural, denoting more than one. REMARK. — The Dual, denoting two, occurs in Latin only in two words (duo, two; ambo, both), in the nominative and vocative of the masculine and neuter. 12 CASES. Cases. 23. In Latin there are six cases : 1. Nominative (Case of the Subject). Answers : who 9 what ? z. Genitive (Case of the Complement). Answers : whose ? whereof ? 3. Dative (Case of Indirect Object or Personal Interest). Answers : to whom ? for whom ? 4. Accusative (Case of Direct Object). Answers : whom ? what ? 5. Vocative (Case of Direct Address). 6. Ablative (Case of Adverbial Eelation). Answers : where, ? whence ? wherewith ? NOTE.— These six cases are the remains of a larger number. The Locative (answers : where ?), is akin to the Dative, and coincident with it in the 1st and 3d Declensions ; in the 2d Declension it is lost in the Genitive ; it is often blended with the Ablative in form, regularly in syntax. The Instrumental (answers: wherewith?), which is found in other members of the family, is likewise merged in the Ablative. 24. i. According to their form, the cases are divided into strong and weak : The strong cases are Nominative, Accusa- tive, and Vocative. The weak cases are Genitive, Dative, and Ablative. 2. According to their syntactical use, the cases are divided into Casus Recti, or Independent Cases, and Casus ObliquI, or Dependent Cases. Nominative and Vocative are Casus Recti, the rest Casus ObliquI. 25. The case-forms arise from the combination of the case- endings with the stem. 1. The stem is that which is common to a class of forma- tions. NOTES.— 1. The stem is often so much altered by contact with the case-ending, and the case-ending so much altered by the wearing away of vowels and consonants, that they can be determined only by scientific analysis. So in the paradigm mSnsa, the stem is not mens, but mensa, the final a having been absorbed by the ending in the Dative and Ablative Plural mensls. So -d, the ending of the Ablative Singular, has nearly disappeared, and the locative ending has undergone many changes (5, Si, 1, 6). The " crude form " it is often impossible to ascertain. 2. The root is an ultimate stem, and the determination of the root belongs to com DECLENSIONS. 13 parative etymology. The stem may be of any length, the root was probably a mono- syllable. In penna the stem is penna- ; in pennula, pennula- ; in pennatulus, pennatulo-; the root is PET (petna, pesna, penna), and is found in pet-ere, to fall upon, to fly at ; Greek, ir£r-op<u, irrepov ; English, feather. 2. The case-endings are as follows, early forms being printed in parenthesis : So. — N.V. Wanting or in. f. -s ; n. -m. PL.— N.V. -es (eis, is); -i; n. -a. G. -is (-os, -us, -es) ; -i. G. -um(om); -nun(som). D. -I (-5, -ei). D. -bus ; -is. Ac. -m, -em. Ac. -s (for -ns) ; n. -a. Ab. Wanting (or -d) ; -e. Ab. -bus ; -is. Declensions. 26. There are five declensions in Latin, which are charac- terised by the final letter of their respective stems (stem- characteristic). For practical purposes and regularly in lexicons they are also im- properly distinguished by the ending of the Genitive Singular. STEM CHARACTERISTIC. GENITIVE SINGULAR. I. ' a (a). ae. II. 6. I. III. i, fi, a consonant. is. IV. a. us. V. 6. 8L REMARK. — The First, Second, and Fifth Declensions are called Vowel Declensions ; the Third and Fourth, which really form but one, the Consonant Declension, i and u being semi-consonants. 27. The case-endings in combination with the stem-char- acteristics give rise to the following systems of terminations : SINGULAR. I. II. III. N. a. us (os) ; wanting ; um (om). s ; wanting. G. ae (as, ai, ai). I (el). is (us, es). D. ae (Si). 5 (oi). I (el, i). Ac. am. um (om). em, im. V. a. e ; wanting ; um (om). s. Ab. a (ad). 5 (6d). e, I (ed, id). FIEST DECLENSION. IV. V. N. V. us ; u. 6S. G. us (uos, uis). e% 6 (es). D. ul, u (uei). el, e. Ac. urn; u. em. Ab. u. 6. PLURAL. I. II. III. N. V. ae. I (oe, e, ei) ; a. Ss (eis, is) ; a, ia. G. arum. um (om), orum. um, ium. D. A. Is (els) ; abus. Is (eis), ibus. ibus. Ac. as. 6s; a. Is, es ; a, ia. IV. V. N. V. us (ues, uus) ; ua. 6s. G. num. erum. D. A. ubus, ibus. 6bus. Ac. us; ua. es. NOTE. — Final -s and -m are frequently omitted in early inscriptions. 28. General Rules of Declension. I. For the strong cases : Neuter substantives have the Nominative and the Vocative like the Accusative ; in the Plural the strong cases always end in a. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions the strong cases are alike in the Plural. The Vocative is like the Nominative, except in the Singular of the Second Declension when the Nominative ends in -us. II. For the weak cases : The Dative and the Ablative Plural have a common form. FIRST DECLENSION. 29. The stem ends in &, which is weakened from an original a. The Nominative has no ending. SG. — N. mensa (f .), the table, a table. G. mensae, of the table, of a table. D. mgnsae, to, for the table, to, for a table. Ac. mensam, the table, a table. V. mensa, 0 table ! table ! Ab. mensa, from, with, by, the table, from, with, by, a table. SECOND DECLENSION. 1 5 PL. — N. mSnsae, the tables, tables. G. mensarum, of the tables, of tables. D. mensis, to, for the tables, to, for tables. Ac. me"nsas, the tables, tables. V. mensae, 0 tables! tables! Ab. mSnsIs, from, with, by, the tables, from, with, by, tables. REMARKS. — i. The early ending of the Gen., as, found in a few cases m early poets, is retained in the classical period (but not in CAESAR or LIVY) only in the form familias, of a family, in combination with pater, father, mater, mother, filius, son, filia, daughter, viz. : paterfamilias, materfamilias, filius familias, filia familias. 2. The Loc. Sing, is like the Genitive: Komae, at Rome; mflitiae, abroad. 3. The Gen. PI. sometimes takes the form -urn instead of -arum; this occurs chiefly in the Greek words amphora (amphora, measure of tonnage), and drachma, franc — (Greek coin). The poets make frequent use of this form in Greek patronymics in -da, -das, and compounds of •cola (from colo, I inhabit) and -gena (from root gen, beget). 4. The ending -abus is found (along with the regular ending) in the Dat. and Abl. PI. of dea, goddess, and filia, daughter. In late Latin the use of this termination becomes more extended. NOTES. — 1. A very few masc. substantives show Nom. Sing, in as in early Latin. 2. A form of the Gen. Sing, in al, subsequent to that in as, is found in early inscriptions, and not unfrequently in early poets, but only here and there in classical poetry (VERG., A., 3, 354, etc.) and never in classical prose. 3. The early ending of the Dat. al (sometimes contracted into 5), is found occa- sionally in inscriptions throughout the whole period of the language. 4. The older ending of the Abl., ad, belongs exclusively to early Latin. Inscriptions show els for Is in Dat. and Abl. PL, and once as in the Dat. Plural. 30. Rule of Gender. — Substantives of the First Declen- sion are feminine, except when males are meant. Hadria, the Adriatic, is masculine. SECOND DECLENSION. 31. The stem ends in 6, which in the classical period is weakened to u, except after u (vowel or consonant), where 6 is retained until the first century A.D. In combination with the case-endings it merges into 6 or disappears altogether. In the Vocative (except in neuters) it is weakened to e. The Nominative ends in s (m. and f.) and m (n.). But many masculine stems in which the final vowel, 5, is preceded by r, drop the (os) us and e of the Nominative and Vocative, and insert 6 before the r if it was preceded by a consonant. l6 SECOND DECLENSION. 32. i. Stems in -ro. The following stems in -ro do not drop the (os) us and e of the Nom. and Voc. : ems, master ; hesperus, evening star ; icterus, jaundice ; iuniperus, juniper ; morns, mulberry ; numerus, num- ber; taurus, bull ; virus, venom; umerus, shoulder; uterus, womb. NOTE.— Socerus is found in early Latin. Plautus uses uterum (n.) once. 2. In the following words the stem ends in -ero and the e is there- fore retained throughout : adulter, adulterer ; gener, son-in-law; Liber, god of wine ; puer, boy ; socer, father-in-law ; vesper, evening ; and in words ending in -fer and -ger, from fer5, J bear, and gero, I carry, as, signifer, standard-bearer, anniger, armor -bear er . Also Ibfr and Celtibgr (names of nations) have in the Plural Iberl and Celtiben, 33. Hortns (m.), garden; puer (m.), ~boy ; ager (m.), field ; bellum (n.), war ; are thus declined : So. — N. hortus, puer, ager, bellum, G. hortl, puerl, agrl, belli, D. horto, puerS, agr5, bello, Ac. hortum, puerum, agrum, bellum, V. horte, puer, ager, bellum, Ab. horto. puer5. agr6. bells. PL.— N. hortl, puerl, agrl, bella, G. hortorum, puerorum, agrSrum, bellomm, D. hortis, puerls, agrls, bellls, Ac. hortos, pueros, agros, bella, V. hortl, puerl, agrl, bella, Ab. hortis. puerls. agrls. bellls. REMARKS. — i. Stems in -io have Gen. Sing, for the most part in I until the first century A. D., without change of accent : ingeni (N. ingenium), of genius, Vergfll, of Vergil. See 15, R. 3. 2. Proper names in -ius (stems in -io) have Voc. in I, without change of accent : Antonl, TullI, Gal, Vergfll. Filius, son, and genius, genius, form their Voc. in like manner : fill, genl. In solemn discourse -us of the Nom. is employed also for the Vocative. (See Liv. i. 24, 7.) So regularly deus, God ! 3. The Loc. Sing, ends in I (apparent Genitive), as BhodI, at Rhodes, TarentI, at Tarentum. 4. In the Gen. PI. -urn instead of -5rum is found in words denoting coins and measures ; as, nummum, of moneys (also -5rum) = sestertium, of sesterces ; denarium (occasionally -6rum) ; talentum (occasionally -orum) ; tetrachmum; medium (also -6mm), of measures; iugerum; medimnum; stadium (also -Orum). Likewise in some names of persons : deum (also THIRD DECLENSION. 1 7 •orom) ; fabrtun (in technical expressions ; as praefectns fabrum, other- wise -orum) ; liberum (also -5rum) ; virum (poetical, except in technical expressions, as triumvirum) ; socium (also -orum). Some other examples are poetical, rare or late. 5. The Loc. PL is identical with the Dative : Delphis, at Delphi. 6. Deus, God, is irregular. In addition to the forms already men- tioned, it has in Norn. PL del, dii, dl ; in Dat. and Abl. PL dels, diis, clis. NOTES.— 1. The ending -61 for -I in the Gen. Sing, is found only in inscriptions sub- sequent to the third Punic War. 2. Puer, boy, forms Voc. puere in early Latin. 3. The original Abl. ending -d belongs to early inscriptions. 4. In early inscriptions the Norn. PL ends occasionally in 6s, els, Is : magistres (for magistrl) vireis (for virl). The rare endings oe and g iploirume for plurimi) and the not uncommon ending el belong to the same period. 5. Inscriptions often show els for is in Dat. and Abl. Plural. 34. Rule of Gender. — Substantives in -us are masculine ; in -urn neuter. EXCEPTIONS. — Feminine are : 1st. Cities and islands, as, Corinthus, Samus. 3d. Most trees, as, fSgus, beech ; pirus, pear-tree. 3d. Many Greek nouns, as, atomus, atom ; dialectus, dialect ; methodus, method ; paragraphus, paragraph ; periodus, period. 4th. Alvus, belly (m. in PLAUT.) ; colus (61, N. 5), distaff (also m.) ; humus, ground; varmus, wheat-fan. Neuters are : pelagus, sea ; virus, venom ; vulgus, the rabble (some- times masculine). THIRD DECLENSION. 35. i. The stem ends in a consonant, or in the close vowels i and u. 2. The stems are divided according to their last letter, called the stem-characteristic, following the subdivisions of the letters of the alphabet : I. — Consonant Stems. II. — Vowel Stems. A. Liquid stems, ending in 1, m, n, r. 1. Ending in i. B. Sibilant stems, ending in s. 2. Ending in u, !1. Ending in a P-mute, b, p. (Compare the Fourth 2. Ending in a K-mute, g, c. Declension.) 3. Ending in a T-mute, d, t. 36. i. The Nominative Singular, masculine and femi- nine, ends in s, which, however, is dropped after 1, n, r, s, and combines with a K-mute to form x. The final vowel of the stem undergoes various changes. 2 1 8 THIRD DECLENSION. The Vocative is like the Nominative. In the other cases, the endings are added to the unchanged stem. 2. Neuters always form : The Nominative without the case-ending s. The Accusative and Vocative cases in both numbers like the Nominative. The Nominative Plural in &. Notes on the Cases. 37. Singular. 1. GENITIVE.— In old Latin we find on inscriptions the endings -us (Gr. -o«) and -es. 2. DATTVE. — The early endings of the Dat. are -el and -6. These were succeeded by I after the second century B. C., 8 being retained in formulas like lure" dlcund5 (Liv., 42, 28, 6), in addition to the usual form. 3. ACCUSATIVE. — The original termination -im, in stems of the vowel declension, loses ground, and stems of this class form their Ace. more and more in -em, after the analogy of consonant stems. For the classical usage see 57, B. i. 4. ABLATIVE. — In inscriptions of the second and first centuries B. C. we find -el, -I. and -e. But -el soon disappears, leaving e and I. In general e is the ending for the consonant stems and I for the vowel. But as in the Ace., so in the Abl., the e makes inroads on the i, though never to the same extent. (See 57, B. 2.) On the other hand, some apparently consonant stems assume the ending i. Thus some in -as, -atis: hereditatl (200 B. C.), aetatl (rare); liti (rare), supellectill (classical; early e) ; also the liquid stems which syncopate in the (Jen., as imber. The ending -d is rare and confined to early inscriptions. 5. LOCATIVE.— Originally coincident in form with the Dat, the Loc. of the Third Declension was finally blended with Abl., both in form and in syntax. In the follow- ing proper names the old form is frequently retained : ZarthaginJ, at Carthage, Sul- moni, at Sulmo, Lacedaemonl, at Lacedaemon, Sicyoni, TroezSnl, Anxurl, Tlburl. Also Acheruntl. In the case of all except Amur, Tibur, Acheruns, the regular form is more common. The following Loc. forms of common nouns are found : heri, loci, noctu (prin- cipally in early Latin), orbi (Cic.), peregrl (early Latin), praefiscinl (early Latin), riirl, temper! (the usual form in early Latin), vesperl. In all cases the Abl. form in e is also found. 38. Plural. 1. NOMINATIVE. — Early Latin shows -Sis, -Is in the masc. and feminine. The latter was usually confined to vowel stems, but also occurs occasionally in consonant stems (ioudicls). Later the ending was -gs for all kinds of stems. 2. GENITIVE. — The ending -urn, uniting with the vowel in vowel stems, gives -itun. But many apparently consonant stems show their original vowel form by tak- ing -ium : (1) Many fern, stems in -tat- (N. tas) with -ium as well as -tun. (2) Mon- osyllabic and polysyllabic stems in -t, -c, with preceding consonant. (3) Monosyllables in -p and -b, sometimes with, sometimes without, a preceding consonant. (4) Stems in -ss- ; see 48, B. 3. ACCUSATIVE. — Old Latin shows also -eis. The classical form is -Ss for conso- nant and -Is for vowel stems. But -6s begins to drive out -Is in some vowel steins and wholly supplants it in the early Empire. On the other hand, some apparently original consonant stems show -Is in early Latin, but the cases are not always certain. CONSONANT STEMS. IQ I.-CONSONANT STEMS. A.— Liquid Stems. 1. LIQUID STEMS IN 1. 39. Form the Nominative without s and fall into two divisions* : A. Those in which the stem characteristic is preceded by a vowel : 1. -al, -alls : sal (with compensatory lengthening), salt ; Punic proper names like Adherbal, Hannibal. 2. -il, -His : mugil (mugilis is late), mullet ; pugil (pugilis in VARRO), boxer ; vigil, watchman. -il, -His : sfl, ochre ; Tanaquil (with shortened vowel), a proper name. 3 -ol, -olis : sol, sun. 4. -ult -ulis : consul, consul; exsul, exile; praesul, dancer. B. Two neuter substantives with stems in -11, one of which is lost in the Nominative : mel, mellis, honey ; fel, fellis, gall. SG. — N. consul, consul (in.). PL. — N. consults, the consuls. G. consults, G. consulum, B. consull, D. cSnsulibus, Ac. cSnsulem, Ac. consulSs, V. consul, V. consulgs, Ab. consule. Ab. consulibus. Rules of Gender. — i. Stems in -1 are masculine. EXCEPTIONS : Sfl, ochre, and sal, salt (occasionally, but principally in the Sing.), are neuter. 2. Stems in -11 are neuter. 2. LIQUID STEMS IN m. 40. Nominative with s. One example only : hiem(p)s, winter (f.) ; Genv Mem-is, Dat., hiem-I, etc. 3. LIQUID STEMS IN n. 41. Most masculine and feminine stems form the Nomi- native Singular by dropping the stem-characteristic and changing a preceding vowel to o. * In the following enumerations of stem-varieties, Greek substantives are as a rule omitted. 20 THIED DECLENSION. Some masculine and most neuter steins retain the stem- characteristic in the Nominative and change a preceding i to e. The following varieties appear : 1. -en, -enis : the masculine substantives lien, splen, spleen; r6n6e (pi.), kidneys. 2. -Of -inis : homo, man; nemo, no one; turb8, whirlwind; Apollo, Apollo. Also substantives in -dS (except praedo, G. -onis, robber) ; and in -go (except harpago, Gr. -onis, grappling-hook ; ligo, G. -onis, mattock) ; as, grando, hail ; virgo, virgin. -enf inis : the masc. substan- tives flamen, priest; oscen (also f.), divining bird; pecten, comb; musical performers, cornicen, fidicen, liticen, tiblcen, tubicen. Also many neuters : as nomen, name. 3. -o (in early Latin o, in classical period weakened), -onis : leo, lion; and about seventy others. -o, -onis : Saxo, Saxon (late). 4. Irregular formations : car§, G. carnis, flesh ; Ani5, G. Anienis, a river ; Neri6, G. NSrienis, a proper name. Sanguls, blood, and pollis, flour, drop the stem characteristic and add s to form nominative ; G. sanguinis, pollinis. 42. MASCULINE. So. — N. Ie6, lion(m.). G. leonis, D. leonl, Ac. leonem, V. leo, Ab. leone, PL.— N. leones, G. leonum, D. leonibos, Ac. leones, V. leonSs, Ab. leonibus. NOTE. — Early Latin shows homonem, etc., occasionally. 43. Rules of Gender. — i. Substantives in -C are mascu- line, except car6, flesh, and those in -do, -go, and -io. EXCEPTIONS. -Masculine are cardo, hinge; ordo, rank; harpago, grappling- hook ; ligo, mattock ; marg5, border (occasionally fern, in late Latin) ; and concrete nouns like pugio, dagger, titiS, firebrand, vespertilio, bat. 2. Substantives in -en (-men) are neuter. See exceptions, 41, i, 2. FEMININE. NEUTEK. imago, likeness (f .). nomen, name (n,> imaginis, nominis, imaginl, nomini, imaginem, nomen, imago, nomen, imagine, nomine, imagines, nomina, imaginum, nominum, imaginibus, nominibus, imagines, nomina, imagines, nomina, imaginibus. nominibus. CONSONANT STEMS. 21 4. LIQUID STEMS IN r. 44. Form Nominative without s. Stems fall into the following classes : i. -ar,-(tris: salar, trout ; proper names like Caesar, Hamilcar; the neuters baccar, a plant ; iubar, radiance ; nectar, nectar. -ar, •arts: Lar, a deity. -ar, arts : Nar (ENN., VERG.), a river. -ar, arris : far (n.) spelt. 2. -er, ~eris : acipSnser, a fish ; agger, mound ; anser, goose ; asser, pole ; aster, a plant ; cancer, the disease ; career, prison; later, brick; mulier (f .), woman ; passer, sparrow ; tuber (m. and f.), apple ; vesper, evening (68, 10) ; vSmer, ploughshare (47 , 2). The neuters acer, maple; cadaver, dead body ; cicer, pea ; laser, a plant ; laver, a plant ; papaver, poppy ; piper, pepper ; slier, willow ; siser, skirret ; suber, cork ; tuber, tumor ; fiber, teat ; [verber], thong. -er> -ris : four words, accipiter, hawk ; frater, brother ; mater, mother ; pater, father. Also some proper names, as DiSspiter, Falacer, and the names of the months, September, October, November, December. Also, imber, shower, linter, skiff, fiter, bag, venter, belly, which were probably vowel stems originally (see 45, R. i). -er, -eris : a6r, air ; aether, ether. -er, -eris : v5r, spring. 3. -or, -oris : arbor (f.), tree (stem originally in -os) ; some Greek words in -tor, as rhetor, rhetorician ; slave names in -por, as Marcipor ; the neuters : ador, spelt ; aequor, sea ; marmor, marble. -or, -oris : very many abstract words, as amor, love; color, colour; clamor, outcry ; soror, sister ; uxor, wife ; these may come from stems in 5s (see 47, 4) ; also verbals in -tor, as victor. 4. -ur, -uris : augur, augur ; furfur, bran ; turtur, dove ; vultur, vulture; lemures (pi.), ghosts, and a few proper names ; also the neuters fulgur, lightning ; guttur, throat ; murmur, murmur ; sulfur, sulphur. -ur, -uris ; fur, thief. 5. Four neuters, ebur, ivory ; femur, thigh ; iecur, liver ; robur, oak, show Gen. in -oris ; two of these, femur, iecur, have also the irregular forms feminis and iecineris, iecinoris, iocinoris. Iter, way, has G. itineris; and supellex, furniture, has G. supellSctilis. 45. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. N. labor, toil (m.), labor es, pater, father (m.), patrSs, G. laboris, laborum, patris, patrnm, D. labor!, laboribus, patrl, patribus, Ac. laborem, labores, patrem, patres, V. labor, laborgs, pater, patrgs, Ab. labore, laboribus. patre. patribus. 22 THIRD DECLENSION. REMARKS. — i. Imber, shower, linter, skiff, uter, bag, venter, belly, show the vowel nature of their steins by having Gen. PI. in -ium. Imber has also sometimes Abl. Sing, in I. (See 37, 4. ) 2. Bobur, strength, also forms a Nom. r5bus (47, 4), and v5mer, plough- share, vomis (47, 2). NOTE. — Arbor, and many stems in -or, were originally stems in -s ; the s became r (47) between two vowels in the oblique cases, and then reacted upon the Nominative. But many Nominatives in -os are still found in early Latin ; and some are still retained in the classical times : arbos (regularly in VERG., frequently in LUCK., HOR., Ov.), hones (regularly in VERG., commonly in Cic., LIVT), and others. 46. Rules of Gender. — i. Substantives in -er and -or are masculine. 2. Substantives in -ar and -ur are neuter. EXCEPTIONS. — Masculine are salar, trout, and proper names in -ar ; augur, augur ; furfur, bran ; names of animals in -ur and a few proper names in -ur. Feminine are arbor, tree ; mulier, woman ; soror, sister ; uzor, wife. Neuter are acer, maple ; ador, spelt ; aequor, sea ; cadaver, dead body ; cicer, pea ; iter, way ; laser, a plant ~ laver, a plant ; marmor, marble ; papaver, poppy ; piper, pepper ; slier, willow ; siser, skirret ; suber, cork ; tuber, tumor ; fiber, teat ; v6r, spring ; [verber], thong. B.-Sibilant Stems. 47. The Nominative has no additional s, and changes in masculines e to i, and in neuters e or o to u before s. In the oblique cases, the s of the stem usually passes over, between two vowels, into r (rhotacism). There are the following varieties of stems : 1. -as, -aris : mas, male. -as, -dsis : vas (n.), vessel. -as, -assis : as (m.), a copper (vowel long in Nom. by compensatory lengthening), and some of its compounds (with change of vowel), as bes, semis. 2. -es, -erist CerSs, Ceres. -is, -eris : cinis, ashes; cucumis, cucumber (see 57, R. i), pulvis (occasionally pulvis), dust; vGmia, plough- share (see 45, R. 2). -us, -eris : Venus, and occasionally plgnus, pledge (see 4). 3. -Is, -iris : glls, dormouse. 4. -OS, -osis : old Latin ianitos, labos, clamos (see 45, N.). -OS, -ossis : os (n.), bone. -6s, -or is : flos, flower; glos, sister-in-law; lepos,charm; m5s(m.), custom; -6s (n.), mouth ; ros,dew. -us, -oris : corpus, body ; decus, grace ; pignus, pledge, and twelve others ; on robus (see 45, R. 2). 5. -us, -uris: Ligus, Ligurian. -us, -uris: tellus (f.), earth; mus (m.), mouse; the neuters: crus, leg; ius, right; pus, pus; rus, country; tus, incense. 6. aes, aeris, brass. CONSONANT STEMS. 23 48. SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. N. A. V. genus, kind (n.), genera, corpus, body (n.), corpora, G. generis, generum, corporis, corporum, D. generl, generibus, corporl, corporibus, Ab. genere. generibus. corpore. corporibus. REMARK. — As, a copper, and os, bone, form the Gen. PL in -ium, after the usage of vowel stems (see 38, 2). So also mus, mouse. 49. Rule of Gender. — Masculine are substantives in -is (-eris), and -6s, -oris: except 6s, mouth (G. oris), which is nenter. Neuter are substantives in -us (G. -eris, -oris), and in -us (G. -uris) ; except tellus, earth (G. telluris), which is femi- nine ; and the masculines, lepus, hare (G. leporis) ; mus, mouse (G. muris). C.— Mute Stems. 50. All masculines and feminines of mute stems have s in the Nominative. Before s a P-mute is retained, a K-mute combines with it to form x, a T-mute is dropped. Most polysyllabic mute stems change their final vowel i into e in the Nominative. The stems show variations as follows : X 51. Stems in a P-mute. 1. -abSf -abis : trabs, beam ; Arabs. -aps, -apis : [daps], feast. 2. -ebs, ebis : plebs, commons. 3. -eps, -ipis : princeps, chief, and fourteen others. -ips, -ipis : stips, dole. 4. -ops, -opis : [ops], power. 5. -eps, upis : auceps, fowler, and the old Latin manceps, contractor. 6. -rbs, -rbis : urbs, city. 7. -rps, -rpis : stirps, stock. So. — N. princeps, chief (m.), PL. — prlncipgs, G. principis, principum, D. principl, prmcipibus. Ac. prlncipem, prlncipgs, V. princeps, prlncipgs, Ab. principe. prlncipibus. 52. Stems in a K-mute. i. -ax, -acis: fax, torch, and many Greek words in -ax, Atax, proper name, -ax, -acis : fornax, furnace ; Umax, snail ; pax, peace ; and Greek cordax, thorax. 24 THIED DECLENSION. 2. -ex, -ecis : faenisex, mower ; nex, murder ; [prex], prayer ; [resex], stump. -ex, -eds : allex (also allEc), brine ; vervgx, wether. -ex, -egis : grex, herd ; aquilex, water-inspector. -ex, -egis : interrex ; lex, law ; rex, Icing. 3. 'ex, •ids : auspex, soothsayer, and about forty others. -ex, -igis : remex, rower. -ix, Ids : cervix, neck, and about thirty others ; verbals in -ix, as victrlx. -ix, -ids : appendix, appendix, and ten others. -ix, -igis : strix, screech-owl ; also many foreign proper names, as Dumnorix, which may, however, be forms in -ix, -igis. 4. -ox, -6ds : ce!5x, cutter ; v5x, voice. -ox, -ods : Cappadox, Cappadocian. -ox, -ogis : Allobrox, Allobrogian. 5. -ux,-uds: crux, cross; dux, leader ; ma, nut. -ux,-uds: lux, light ; ballux, gold-dust ; Pollux. -ux, -ugis : coniux (-uns), spouse. 'Ux, -ugis : frux, fruit. 6. 'TX, -rds : arx, citadel ; merx, wares. -Ix, -Ids : faix, sickle ; calx, heel, lime. -nx, -nds : lanx, dish ; compounds of -uux, as quincunx, and a few names of animals ; phalanx has G. phalangis. 7. Unclassified : nix (G. nivis), snow ; b6s (G. bovis ; see 71), ox; [faux] (G. faucis), throat ; faex (G. faecis), dregs. So. — N. rex, king (m.). PL. — rggSs, G. regis, rSgum, D. r6gi, rggibus, Ac. regem, r5g6s, V. r6x, r8g6s, Ab. rege, rBgibus. 53. Stems in a T-mute 1. -as, -atis : many feminine abstracts, as aetas, age ; some proper names, as Maecenas. -as, -atis : anas, duck. -as, -adis : vas, bail ; lampas, torch. 2. -es,-etis: indiges, patron deity ; interpres, interpreter; praepes, bird; seges, crop; teges, mat. -es, -etis : abies, fir; aries, ram; paries, wall. -es, -etis : quies, quiet ; requies, rest. -es, -edis : p6s, foot, and its compounds. -es, -edis : heres, heir ; merces, hire. 3. -es, -itis : antistes, overseer ; caespes, sod, and some fifteen oth- ers, -es, -idis : obses, hostage ; praeses, protector. -is, -itis : lls, suit. -is, -idis : capis, bowl ; cassis, helmet, and nearly forty others, mostly Greek. 4. -os, -of is : c5s, whetstone ; d6s, dowry ; nepos, grandson ; sacer- dos, priest. -os, -ddis : cust5s, guard. 5. -us, 'Utis : glus, glue, and some abstracts : iuventus, youth ; salus, safety ; senectus, old age ; servitus, servitude ; virtus, manliness. -us, -udis : pecus, sheep. -us, -udis : incus, anvil ; palus, marsh ; subscus, tenon. CONSONANT STEMS. 25 6. -aes, -aedis : praes, surety. -aus, -audis : laus, praise ; fraus, fraud. 7. -Is, -Itis : puls, porridge. -nsf -ntis : Infans, infant ; dens, tooth ; fons, fountain ; m5ns, mountain ; frons, Z>row ; pens, bridge ; gens, tribe; lens, lentil; mSns, mind; rudens, rope; torrens, torrent. -s, -ntis : latinised Greek words like gigas, giant. -rs, -rtis : ars, art ; cohors, cohort,- fors, chance ; Mars; mors, death ; sors, lot. 8. Unclassified : cor (G. cordis), heart ; nox (G. noctis), night ; caput (G. capitis), Aeorf ; lac (G. lactis), milk. So. — N. aetas, age, (f.). PL. — aetatSs, SG.— p6s, foot (m.). PL. — pedes, G. aetatis, aetatum, pedis, pedum, 1). aetati, aetatibus, pedl, pedibus, Ac. aetatem, aetates, pedem, pedes, Y. aetas, aetates, pes, pedes, Ab. aetate, aetatibus. pede, pedibus. 54. Many substantives of this class were originally vowel stems (see 56), and show their origin by having the termination -ium in the Gen. PI. and -I in the Abl. Singular. Some not originally vowel stems do the same. (See 38, 2.) Monosyllabic mute stems, with the characteristic preceded by a consonant, have the Gen. PL in -ium : urbium, of cities ; arcium, of citadels ; montium, of mountains ; partium, of parts ; noctium, of the nights. But -um is also found in gentum (ATTIUS), partum (ENNius) ; so always opum. Monosyllabic mute stems, with characteristic preceded by a long vowel or diphthong, vary : dot-ium, lit-ium, fauc-iuni, fraud-um (-ium), laud-um (-ium). But praed-um, vScum. Monosyllabic mute stems with characteristic preceded by a short vowel have -um ; but fac-ium, nuc-um (-ium), niv-ium (-um). The polysyllabic stems in -nt and -rt have more frequently -ium, as clientium (-um), of clients ; cohortium (-um), of companies. So adulS- scentium (-um), amantium (-um), Infantium (-um), parentum (-ium), serpen- tium (-um), torrentium (-um) ; rudentum (-ium) ; but only quadrantum. Of other polysyllabic stems feminine stems in -at have frequently both -um and -ium, as aetatum and aetatium, civitatum and civitStium, etc. ; the rest have usually -um : but artifex, (h)aruspex, extispex, iudex, supplex, coniux, r6mex, and usually fornax have -ium. Forceps, manceps, municeps, princeps have -um. Falus has usually paludium. NOTES. — i. The accusative lentim from [16ns] is occasionally found, and partim from pars, as an adverb. 2. Sporadic ablatives in -i occur as follows : animantl (Cic.), bidentl (LucB.), tridentl (Sn,., VEBG.), capitl, consonant! (gram.), hgrSdl (inscr.), Iggl (inscr.), lent! (TITIN., COL.), lucl (early), mentl (COL.), occipiti (PKBS., Aus.), pad (VABBO), parti, rudentl (VITK.). sorti, torrentl (SEN.). 26 THIED DECLENSION. 55. Rule of Gender. — Mute stems, with Nominative in s, are feminine. 1. Exceptions in a k-mute. , Masculines are substantives in -ex, -6x, -ix, and -rtnx ; except cortex, bark, forfex, shears, frutex, shrub, imbrex, tile, latex, fluid, obex, bolt, silex, flint, varix, varicose vein, which are sometimes masculine, some- times feminine ; and faex, dregs, forpex, tongs, iSx, law, nex, slaughter, vlbex, weal, and forms of [prex], prayer, which are feminine. Calx, heel, and calx, chalk, are sometimes masculine, sometimes feminine. 2. Exceptions in a t-mute. Masculine are substantives in -es, -itis, except merges (f.), sheaf; also pes, foot, and its compounds ; paries, wall ; lapis, stone. Masculines in -ns are : dens, tooth, and its compounds ; f5ns, spring ; m5ns, mountain ; pons, bridge, ; rudfins, rope ; torrens, torrent ; also some substantivised adjectives and participles. Neuters are only : cor, heart, lac, milk, and caput, head. II.-VOWEL STEMS. 1 .—Vowel Stems in I. 56. Masculines and feminines form their Nominative in s. Some feminines change, in the Nominative, the stem- vowel i into e. Neuters change, in the Nominative, the stem-vowel i into e. This e is generally dropped by polysyllabic neuters after 1 and r. Stems in i have Genitive Plural in -ium. Neuter stems in i have the Ablative Singular in i, and Nominative Plural in -ia. The varieties of stems are : 1. -is, -is : nearly one hundred substantives, like clvis, citizen. 2. -es, -is : thirty-five, like vulpSs, fox. Some of these have also variant nominatives in -is in good usage. 3. -e, -is : some twenty neuters, as mare, sea. 4. — , -is : twenty-four neuters, which form Nominative by dropping the stem characteristic and shortening the preceding vowel : animal, -alls, animal ; calcar (G-. calcaris), spur. 5. For substantives in -er, -ris, see 44, 2. Irregular is senex, (G. senis ; see 57, R. 3), old man. VOWEL STEMS. So.— N. collis, hill, turris, tower. vulp6s,/o:c. mare, sea. animal, living being. G. collis, turris, vulpis, raaris, animalis, D. colll, Ac. collem, V. collis, Ab. colle, turrl, turrim(em), turris, turrl(e), vulpl, vulpem, vulpes, vulpe, marl, mare, mare, marl, animal!, animal, animal, animal!, PL— N. collSs, turrSs, G. collium, turri-um, D. collibus, turri-bus, Ac. collisCes), turris(es), V. colles, turrSs, Ab. collibus. turri-bus. vulpes, maria, animalia, vulpium, marum, animalium, vulpibus, maribus, animalibus, vulpls(e"s), maria, animalia, vulpes, maria, animalia, vulpibus. maribus. animalibus. 57. REMARKS. — i. The proper ending of the Ace. Sing, -im, is re- tained always in amussis, buris, cucumis (see 47, 2), futis, mephitis, ravis, rumis, sitis, tussis, vis ; and in names of towns and rivers in -is, as Neapolis, Tiberis ; usually in febris, puppis, pelvis, restis, securis, turris ; occasionally in bipennis, clavis, cratis, cutis, len(ti)s (see 54, N. i), messis, navis, neptis, praesaepis, sementis, strigilis. 2. The Abl. in -I is found in substantives that regularly have -im in Ace. (except perhaps restis) : also not unfrequently in amnis, avis, bipennis, canalis, clvis, classis, finis (in formulas), fustis, Ignis (in phrases), orbis, sementis, strigilis, uuguis ; occasionally in anguis, bilis, clavis, collis, convallis, corbis, messis, neptis ; regularly in neuters in e, al, and ar, except in rete, and in the towns Caere, Praeneste. NOTE.— So also the adjectives of this class, when used as substantives by ellipsis : annSlis (sc. liber, book), chronicle ; natalis (sc. die's, day), birthday; Aprllis (sc. mSnsis, month), and all the other months of the Third Declension : Abl., annall, natall, Aprill, SeptembrI, etc. But iuvenis, young man; and aedllis, aedile, have Abl., iuvene, aedile ; adjectives used as proper nouns have generally Abl. in •e, as, luvenalis, luvenale. 3. In the Gen. PL, instead of the ending -ium, -urn is found always in canis, dog, iuvenis, young man, panis, bread, senex, old, Strugs, heap, volucris, bird; usually in apis, bee, sgdes, seat, vat6s, bard ; frequently in mgnsis, month. On imber, etc., see 45, R. i. Post-classical and rare are ambagum, caedum, cladum, veprum, and a few others ; marum (the only form found) occurs once. 4. In the Nom. PL -els and -Is are found in early Latin. So occa- sionally in consonant stems (see 38, i), but in classical times such usage is doubtful. 5. The proper ending of the Aec. PL, -Is (archaic, -els), is found fre- quently in the classical period along with the later termination -Ss, which supplants -Is wholly in the early empire. On the other hand, -Is for -68 in consonant stems is confined to a few doubtful cases in early Latin. 28 THIRD DECLENSION. 58. Rule of Gender. — i. Vowel stems, with Nominative in -6s are feminine ; those with Nominative in -is are partly masculine, partly feminine. Masculine are: anmis, river (f., early); ante's (pl.)> rows; axis, axle; buris, plough- tail; cassSs (pi.), toils; caulis, stalk; collis, hill; crlnis, hair; gnsis, glaive; fascis, fagot ; follis, bellows ; funis, rope (f ., LUCE.) ; fustis, cudgel ; ignis, fire ; mane's (pi.), Manes ; m6nsis, month ; mugil(is), mullet ; orbis, circle ; panis, bread ; postis, door-post ; torr is,. fire-brand ; unguis, nail ; vectis, lever ; vermis, worm. Common are : c&Uis, footpath ,• canalis, canal ; clunis, haunch ; cor bis, basket ; finis, end ; rStis, net (also re"te, n.) ; sentis (usually pi.), bramble ; scrobis, ditch ; torquis (es), necklace ; t5l6s (pl.)i goitre ; veprSs (pi-), bramble. REMARK. — Of the names of animals in -is, some are masculine ; tigris, tiger (fern, in poetry) ; canis, dog (also fern.) ; piscis, fish ; others fem- inine : apis, tee ; avis, bird ; ovis, sheep ; fglis, cat (usually feles). 2. Vowel stems, with Nominative in -e, -al, -ar, are neuter. 2. Vowel Stems in u. 59. Of stems in u, the monosyllabic stems, two in num- ber, belong to the Third Declension. So. — N. grus, crane (f.) (jr. gmis D. grul Ac. gruem V. grus Ab. grue PL. — grues gruum gruibus grues grues gruibos. Sfis, swine (commonly f.), usually subus, in Dat. and Abl. Plural. TABLE OF NOMINATIVE AND GENITIVE ENDINGS op THE THIRD DECLENSION. The * before the ending denotes that it occurs only in the one word cited. 60. A. NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH A LIQUID. NOM. GEN. NOM. GEN. -al -ali-s animal, animal. -ar *-arr-is far, -al-is Hannibal, proper name. -er -er-is anser, -al *-al-is sal, salt. -r-is pater, -el -ell-is mel, honey. *-iner-is iter, -il -il-is pugil, boxer. -Br *-6r-is v6r, -U-is Tanaquil, proper name. •or -6r-is color, -SI *-ol-is sol, the sun. -or-is aequor, -ul -ul-is cSnsul, consul. *-ord-is cor, -6n -Sn-is rSngs (pi.), kidneys. •ur -ur-is fulgur, •en -in-is nomen, name. -or-is roour, -ar -ari-s calcar, spur. -ur -ur-is far, -ari-s nectar, nectar. spelt. goose. father. journey. spring. colour. expanse. heart. lightning. oak. thief. VOWEL STEMS. B. NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH B, OK x (cs, gs). 29 NOM. GEN. NOM. GEN. -as *-as-is vas, dish. -Is *-lt-is puls, porridge. *-ar-is mas, male. •m(p)s *-m-is hiems, winter. * ass-is as, a copper. -ns -nd-is frons, leafy branch. -fit-is aetas. age. -nt-is frons, forehead. -as *-ad-is vas, surety. -rs -rd-is coucors, concordant. *-at-is anas. duck. -rt-is pars, part. -aes*-aed-is praes, surety. -bs -b-is urbs, city. *aer-is aes, brass. -ps -p-is stirps, stalk. •aus -aucl-is fraus, cheatery. -eps -ip-is princeps, chief. -es -is nubSs, cloud. *-up-is auceps, fowler. -ed-is p6s, foot. -ax -ac-is pax, peace. *-er-is Cere's, Ceres. ax *-ac-is fax, torch. •et-is abiSs, fir. -aex -aec-is faex, dregs. -St-is quies, rest. -aux -auc-is [faux,] throat. es -et-is seges, crop. -ex -ec-is nex, death. -id-is obses, hostage. -ic-is iudex, judge. -it-is miles, soldier. -eg-is grex, Jlock. -is -is amnis, river. *-ig-is rgmex, rower. -id-is lapis, stone. -ex *-Sc-is max, pickle. -in-is sanguis, blood. *-ic-is vlbgx(Ix), weal: -er-is cinis, ashes. -gg-is rSx, king. -Is *-It-is Us, suit at law. -Ix -Ic-is cervix, neck. *-Ir-is glls, dormouse. -ix -ic-is calix, cup. -5s *-od-is cfistos, keeper. *-ig-is strix, screech-owl. •6r-is flos, flower. *-iv-is nix, mow. -5t-is COS, whetstone. -«x -de-is v6x, •voice. *-ov-is blto, ox. -ox *-oc-is praecox, early-ripe. -os *oss-is OS, bone. *-og-is Allobrox, Allobrogian. •us *-ud-is pecus, cattle, sheep. *-oct-is nox, night. *-ur-is Ligus, a Ligurian. -ux -c-is crux, cross. -or-is. corpus, body. -ug-is coniux, spouse. -er-is scelus, crime. -fix -uc-is lux, light. •us -u-is sus, swine* -ug-is [frux,] fruit. -M-is incus, anvil. -Ix -Ic-is falx, sickle. -ur-is ius, right. -nx -nc-is lanx, dish. .fit-is salus, weal. -rx -re-is arx, citadel. C. NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH A MUTE. -ut *-it-is caput, head. -ac *-act-is lac, milk. -Sc *-6c-is allSc, pickle (68, 12). D. NOMINATIVES ENDING WITH A VOWEL. -e -O •8 -i-s -on-is -on-Is -in-is *-n-is mare, sea. Saxo, Saxon. pavS, peacock. homo, man. card", flesh. JO FOURTH DECLENSION. FOURTH DECLENSION. 61. The Fourth Declension embraces only dissyllabic and polysyllabic stems in u. The endings are those of the Third Declension. In the Genitive and Ablative Singular, and in the Nomi- native, Accusative, and Vocative Plural (sometimes, too, in the Dative Singular), the u of the stem absorbs the vowel of the ending, and becomes long. In the Dative and Ablative Plural it is weakened to i before the ending -bus. The Accusative Singular, as always in vowel stems, has the ending -m, without a connecting vowel (compare the Accusative in -i-m of the stems in i), hence -u-m. MASCULIKE. NEUTER. SG.— N. fructus, fruit. PL.— fructus, SG.— cornu, horn. PL.— cornua, cornuum, cornibus, cornua, cornua, cornibus. REMARKS. — i. Dot. Abl. The original form -u-bus is retained always in acus, arcus, quercus, tribus, and in classical times in partus. But artus, genu, lacus, portus, specus, tonitru, veru, have both forms. 2. Domus, house, is declined : G. domu-os (archaic), domu-is and domi (early), domu-us (late), domus. D. domo (early), domuL Ac. domum. V. domus. Ab. dom-ti (sporadic), domo. Loc. domi. PI. N. domus. G. domorum (LucR. always, VERG., FLOR.), domuum (late). D. Ab. domibus. Ac. domos, domus. Classical forms are those in black-faced type. A classical variant for domi (Loc.) is domui. NOTES. — 1. Singular: Genitive. In early inscriptions we find the ending -os, as senatuOS ; and in early authors not nnf requently -is, along with the contraction -us (•uis), which becomes the regular form in classical times. In inscriptions under the empire -us is occasionally found, as exercituus. The termination -I, after the analogy of the Second Declension, is common in early Latin, and is still retained in some words even into the classical period ; as senatl (Cic., SALL., LIVT), tumultl (SALL.). 2. Dative. In the early tune -uel is found very rarely for -ul. Also u, as senatu, fructu, which became the only form for neuters. In classical tunes -u in masc. and fern, is poetical only (CAESAR uses, however, casu, exercitu, magistratu, senatu, quaestu), but extends to prose in the Augustan age and later. 3. Plural : Norn., Ace., Voc. In imperial inscriptions -uus occurs. 4. Genitive. The poets frequently contract -uum into -um for metrical reasons, and this usage was sometimes extended to prose (not by CICERO) in common words ; aa passum for passuum. 5. Colus, distaff, belongs properly to the Second Declension, but has variants : Q. COlus, Ab. colu, PL, N., Ac., colus, from the Fourth. G. fructus, fructuum, cornus, D. fructul (fructu), fructibus, cornu, Ac. fructum, fructus, cornu, V. fructus, fructus, cornu, Ab. fructu. fructibus. cornu. FIFTH DECLENSION. 3! 62. Rule of Gender. — Substantives in -us are masculine ; those in -ti are neuter. EXCEPTIONS. — Feminines are acus, needle (usually), domus, house, Idus (pi.), the Ides, manus, hand, penus, victuals (also m.), porticus, piazza, qulnquatrus (pi.), festival of Minerva, tribus, tribe. Early and late Latin show some further variations. FIFTH DECLENSION. 63. The stem ends in -e ; Nominative in s. In the Genitive and Dative Singular -e has been shortened after a consonant. In the Accusative Singular we find always e. The ending in the Genitive Singular is that of the Second Declension, -I ; the other endings are those of the Third. MASCULINE. FEMININE. SG. — N. dies, day. PL. — digs, SG. — rgs, thing. PL. — rfisr G. diet, dierum, rei, rSrom, D. diei, diebus, rei, rebus, Ac. diem, digs, rem, res, V. diSs, digs, rgs, rgs, Ab. dig. diebus. re. rebus. REMARKS. — i. Plural: Gen., Dat., All. Common in but two substan- tives, digs, rgs. Late Latin shows also specigbus, and very rarely spebus and aciebus. 2. Many words of the Fifth Declension have a parallel form, which follows the First Declension, as mollitigs, softness, and mollitia. Where this is the case, forms of the Fifth Declension are usually found only in the Nom., Ace., and Abl. Singular. NOTES.— 1. Singular : Genitive. The older ending -g-s is found sporadically in early Latin, but usually the ending -g-I, which became later -8-1 after consonants, though early poets show numerous examples of rgl, spgi, fidel. gl was occasionally scanned as one syllable, whence arose the contraction g, which is retained not unfre- quently in the classical period ; so acig (CAES., SALL.), dig (Pi-, CAES., SALL., LIVY, later), fidg (Pi., HOB., Ov., late Prose), and other less certain cases; Joccursvery rarely, principally in early Latin (but dil, VEKG., pernicil, Cic.). Plebes, in combination with tribunus, aedllis, scitum, often shows a Gen. plgbl (plgbei). 2. Dative. The contraction -g is found, but less often than in the Gen. ; awe (SALL.) ; dig, facig (early Latin) ; fidg (early Latin, CAES., SAXL., LIVY), pernicig (LIVY), and a few other forms. The Dat. in -I is found very rarely in early Latin. 64. Rule of Gender. — Substantives of the Fifth Declension are feminine except dies (which in the Sing, is common, and in the PI. masculine), and raerldies (m.), midday. DECLENSION OF GREEK SUBSTANTIVES. Declension of Greek Substantives. 65. Greek substantives, especially proper names, are com- monly Latinised, and declined regularly according to their stem-characteristic. Many substantives, however, either retain their Greek form exclusively, or have the Greek and Latin forms side by side. These variations occur principally in the Singular, in the Plural the declension is usually regular. N. G. D. Ac. V. Ab. N. G. D. Ac. V. Ab. Singular Forms of Greek Substantives. First Declension. AnchisBs, Anchisae, Anchlsae, Anchisen, am, Anchlse, a, a, Anchisa. Androgeos, as, Androgel, Androgeo, Androgeon, o, ona Androgeos, Androgeo. Atlas, Atlantis, Atlanti, Atlanta, Atla, Atlante. hSros, hero, herois, heroi, heroa, em, heros, heroe. P5nelop6, Leonidas, G. Penelopes, Leonidae, D. Penelopae, Leonidae, Ac. Penelopen, LeSnidam, an, V. Penelope, Leonida, Ab. Penelopa. Leonida. Second Declension. Delos, as, Ilion, am, Panthos, Deli, Ilil, Fanthi, DS15, Ilio, Pantho, Delon, am, Ilion, am, Panthun, Dele, Ilion, am, Panthu, Delo. £115. Paatho. Third Declension. Solon, Solo, a6r, air. Xenophon, Solonis, aeris, Xenophontis, SolSnl, aeri, Xenophonti, Solona, em, aera, em, Xenophonta, em, Solon, aer, Xenophon, Solone. aere. Xenophonte. N. Thaies, Paris, G. Thal-etis, -is, Paridis, os, D. Thal-etl, -I, Paridi, i, Ac. Thai-eta, -en, -em, Par-ida, -im, -in, V. Thale, Pari, Paris, Ab. Thale. Paride. Mixed Declensions. N. G. D. Ac. V. Ab. n. m. OrpheTis, Orphel, el, Orpheo, Orpheum, ea, Orphea, OrpheS. n. m. Athos, Atho, onis, Atho, Atho, on, onem, Athos, Athene. n. m. Oedipus, Oedip-odis, -I, Oedipodi, Oedip-am, -ode Oedipe, Oedip-ode, -6. IKREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES. 33 n. m. n. m. m. iv. N. Achilles, ens, Socrates, Dido, G. Achillis, el, I, eos, Socratis, I, Diclus, onis, D. Achilli, Socratf, Dido, onl, Ac. Achillem, ea, en, Socraten, em, Dido, onem, V. Achilles, e, eu, e, Socrate, es, Dido, Ab. Achille, e, 1. Socrate. Dido, one. REMARKS. — i. In the Gen. PL -5n and -eon are found in the titles of books ; as, Georgicon, Metamorphoseon. 2. Many Greek names, of the Third Declension in Latin, pass over into the First Declension in the Plural ; as, Thucydidas, Hyperldae, and many names in -cratSs ; as SScratSs ; PI., Socratae (also SOcrates). 3. In transferring Greek words into Latin, the Accusative Singular was sometimes taken as the stem : So KpciTTJp, Ace. Kparfjpa, (punch) bowl. crater, cratSris (masc.), and crater a (crgterra) cratSrae (fern.). 2a\aji,Cs, Ace. SaXajuva, Salamis. Salamls, Salaminis, and Salamina, ae. 66. NOTES.— 1. Singular: Genitive. The Greek termination oeo (oio) appears rarely in early Latin, but d (ou) is more frequent, especially in geographical names, etc. The termination -OS (°«) is rare except in feminine patronymics in -is, -as, (G. -idos, -ados). 2. Dative. The ending -I is very rare ; and rarer still is the Dat. in -5 from femi- nines in -5, and Dat. in -y from Nominatives in -ys. 3. Accusative. -a. is the most common termination in the Third Declension, and is found regularly in some words otherwise Latinised ; as aera, aethera. Stems in -5 usually have -5, very rarely -on. 4. Plural. In the Second Declension oe is found occasionally in the Nom., in early Latin ; as, adelphoe. The Third Declension shows frequently 6s in the Nom. and as in the Accusative ; also occasionally 6 in the Nom. and Ace. of neuters, and -si (but only in the poets) in the Dative. 5. For other peculiarities, not observable in the paradigms, the dictionaries should be consulted. Sometimes the forms are merely transliterations of Greek cases. IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES. 1. Redundant Substantives. (Abundantia.) 67. A. Heterogeneous Substantives, or those whose gender varies : i. The variation occurs in several cases in either number or in both. abrotonum, -us, a plant (rare), clipeus, -um, shield, aevom (urn), -us, age, collum, -us, neck, baculum, -us, staff, costum, -us, a plant (rare), baltens, -um, girdle, forum, -us, market, buxus, -um, box-wood (rare), gladius, -um, sword, [ealamister], -um, curling-iron (rare), intibus, -um, succory (rare), caseus, -um, cheese, iugulum, -us, collar-bone, cavom (um), -us, cavity, narduni, -us, nard (rare), cingulum, -us, belt, nasus, -um, nose, 3 34 IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES. palatum, -us, palate, thesaurus, -um, treasure, pileus, -um, cap, uterus, -um, u-omb, sagum, -us, cloak, vallus, -um, palisade, tergum, -us, back, and many others. 2. The gender varies in Singular and Plural, a. The Plural has -a sometimes, while the Singular ends in -us (or -er) : clivus, hill, iocus, jest, locus (loca, localities ; loci, usually passages in books, topics), and many others, especially names of places. b. The Plural has -I, while the Singular ends in -um : filum, thread, £r6num, bit, rastrum, hoe, and many others. 68. B. Heteroclites, or substantives which show different stems with the same Nominative ; Metaplasts, or those which have certain forms from another than the Nominative stem. 1. 1st, 2d. esseda, -um, chariot, margarita, -um, pearl, ostrea, -um, oyster, 2. 1st, 5th. duritia, -6s, hardness, materia, -68, matter, and many others. See 63, R. 2. 3. 2d, 1st. mendum, -a, fault, sertum, -a, wreath. The following form their Plural according to the First Declension only : balneum, bath, delirium, pleasure, epulum, banquet, fulmentum, prop. 4. 2d, 3d. sequester, trustee, Mulciber, Vulcan. 5- 2d, 4th. Many names of trees of the Second Declension have certain cases according to the Fourth ; never, however, the Gen. and Dat. PI., and very rarely the Dat. Sing. ; as cornus, cupressus, fagus, ficus, laurus, myrtus, plnus, and a few others. Also angiportus, alley, colus, distaff, domus, house, and a large number of sub- stantives of the Fourth Declension which have one or two cases of the Second ; so arcus has G. arcl; conatus (-um), iussus (-tun), vultus have Norn. PI. in a; senatus has Gen. Sing, senatl. See 61, KB, NN. Finally, some substantives of the Second Declension form individual cases accord- ing to the Fourth : fasti (Ac. pi. fastus), fretum (N. fretus, Ab. fretu), lectus (G. lecttis), tributum (N. tributus), and others. 6. 2d, 5th. diluvium, -Ss, flood. 7. 3d. 2d. Vas, vessel, and vasum ; palumbes, pigeon, and palumbus ; [iuger], acre, and iugerum ; all Greek nouns in -a (G. atis), as po§ma, poem (G. poSmatis), but PL Gen. poSmatorum, Dat. Abl. poSmatis. 8. 3d, 5th. Fames, hunger, tabes, corruption, have Abl. fame, tab6 ; requi6s, quiet (G. -6tis) has Ace. requiem, Abl. requi6 ; satias (G. atis) is early and late for satietas, sufficiency, and a form saties is cited from late authors ; plgbs (G. plgbis), commons, and pl6b6s (G. plebei). 9- 4th, 3d. Specus, cave, has occasionally forms of the Third Declension. 10. 2d, 3d, 1st. Vesper, evening, has Ace. vesperum ; Dat. Abl. vesperS ; PI. Nom. vespera of the Second Declension ; Ace. vesperam ; Abl. vesperaof the First ; Gen. vesperis ; Abl. vespere ; Loc. vespere, vesper! of the Third. 11. 4th, 2d, 3d. Penus,/ocKZ, (G. Us). Forms of the Second Declension are rare ; of the Third early and late. 12. Variations in the same Declension : femur (G. femoris, feminis, etc.) ; iecur (G. iecoris. iecinoris, etc.) ; pecus, early, also pecu (G. peooris, pecudis, etc.). Also allSc and Sll6x, baccar and baccaris, cassis and cassida, lac and lacte (early), panis and pane (early), re"te and r6tis, satias and satietas. IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES. 35 II. Defective Substantives. I. SUBSTANTIVES DEFECTIVE IN NUMBER. 69. A. Substantives used in Singular only : Singularia tantum. Most abstract substantives, and names of materials ; such as iustitia, justice, aurum, gold. B. Substantives used in Plural only : Pluralia tantum. altaria, ium, altar (sing. late). Insidiae, ambuscade. ambages, round about. lactes, intestines. angustiae, straits. lainenta, lamentations. antae, door-posts. lautomiae, stone-quarries. antes, rows (of vines), llberl, children. arma, drum, arms. manes, shades of the dead. armamenta, orum , tackle. manubiae, spoils. bellaria, orum, dessert. minae, threats. blgae, quadrigae, two-horse,four-horse moenia, ium, town-wall. chariot (sing. late), nundinae (-num), market. cancelll, lattice. nuptiae, wedding. casses, toils (snare). palpebrae, eyelids (sing. late). caulae, opening. parentalia, festival for dead rela- cervices, neck (sing, early, late, tions. and poet.). parietinae, ruins. cibaria, victuals. penates, the Penates. claustrum, lock (sing. late). phalerae, trappings. clltellae, pack-saddle. praecordia, orum, diaphragm. codicilli, a short note. praestrlgiae, jugglers'1 tricks. compedes, fetters. preces, -um, prayer. crepundia, orum, rattle. prlmitiae, first-fruits. cunae, cradle. quisquiliae, rubbish. divitiae, riches. reliquiae, remains. dumeta, orum, thorn-bush. r8n6s, kidneys. epulae (epulum), banquet. sallnae, salt-pits. excubiae, watching. scalae, stairway. exsequiae, funeral procession, sentes, brambles. exta, orum, the internal organs, spolia, orum, spoils (sing, late, and exuviae, equipments. poet.). facetiae, witticism (sing, ear- sponsalia, ium, betrothal. ly and late). suppetiae, succor (early and late). fasti (fastus), calendar. talaria, ium, winged sandals. fauces, gullet. tenebrae, darkness. feriae, holidays. thermae, warm baths. flabra, breezes. tonsillae, tonsils. fores, door (sing, early, tormina, colic. late and poet.). trlcae, tricks. fraga, orum, strawberries. utensilia, ium, necessaries. grates, thanks. valvae, folding-doors. hlberna, winter quarters. verbera, um, scourging (sing. poet. Idus, Ealendae, Ides, Calends, and late). Nonae, Nones. vindiciae, a legal claim. incunabula, swaddling-clothes, virgulta, orum, shrubbery. indutiae, truce. viscera, entrails (sing, poet inferiae, sacrijtcesfor the dead. and late). 30 IRREGULAR SUBSTANTIVES. NOTES.— 1. Four of these have the Abl. Sing, in -e: ambage, compede, fauce, prece. 2. Names of persons or towns, and collectives and the like, may be either singu- iSria tantum, as luppiter ; Roma ; capillus, hair ; or pluralia tantum, as maiorSs, ancestors ; Quirites ; liberl, children ; pulmonSs, lungs. Many of these are not included in the above list, which is meant to contain only the principal forms. Akin to pluralia tantum are : C. Substantives used in Plural with a special sense : Heterologa. aetlgs, is, temple (better aedis), aedSs, house, palace. aqua, water, aquae, mineral springs. auxilium, help, auxilia, auxiliaries, reinforcements. career, prison, carcerSs, barriers. castrum, fort, castra, camp. cera, wax, cSrae, waxen tablets. comitium, place of assemblage, comitia, assemblage for voting. copia, abundance, cSpiae, forces, troops. delirium, pleasure, deliciae, pet. facultas, capability. facultates, goods. finis, end, limit, fines, territory, borders. fortuna, fortune, fortunae, possessions. habena, strap, habgnae, reins. impedimentum, hindrance, impedimenta, baggage. littera, letter (of the alphabet), Htterae, epistle, literature. lUdus, game, school, ludl, public games. opera, work, operae, workmen. pars, part, partgs, also role. rostrum, beak, rostra, the tribunal at Rome. sors, lot, sortes, also oracle. tabula, board, tablet, tabulae, also accounts. vigilia, a night-watch, vigiliae, pickets. 2. SUBSTANTIVES DEFECTIVE IN CASE. 70. A. Substantives occurring in only one case : Gen. dicis,/onw ,• Ace. Infitias (Ire), (to) lie ; pessum (Ire), (to) perish ; Abl. pondo, in weight ; sponte, of free will ; tSb5, corruption (Gen. late) ; and many verbals in fi, as accltu, admonitu, arcessitu, coactu, compressu, concessu, domitu, inductu, interpositu, invltatu, iussu (other forms late), iniussu, mandatu, missu, natu, permissu, promptu, rogatu. A few others occur occasionally in ante-classical and post-classical Latin. B. Substantives with only two cases : fas, nefas, Sing. N. Ac. ; Instar, Sing. N. Ac. ; interneciO, Sing. Ac. Ab. ; naucum, Sing. G. Ac. ; secus, Sing. N. Ac. ; spinter, Sing. N. Ac.; suppetiae, Plur. N. Ac., and a few others. Some verbals in -ushavein Plural only Nom. and Ace., as impetus, monitus. Greek neuters in -OS have only Nom. and Ace. Singular. C. Substantives with three cases : faex, Sing. N., D., Plur. Ab. ; virus, slime ; Sing. N., G., Ab. D. Defective substantives with more than three cases are numerous, but in the classical period the most important are : calx, lime, COS, [daps] , dica, [ dicio ! , fi amen, blast, forum, [frQz], [indSgo], later, lux, [of6\,Qa,nmith, pax, rSmex, vis, [vix], and most substantives of the Fifth Declension. The Nominatives in brackets do not occur, but only oblique cases. E. Nem5, nobody, substitutes for Gen. and Abl. nulllus hominis, and null? liomine. I" the Dat. and Ace. it is normal ; nSmini, nSminem. ADJECTIVES. 37 71. III. Peculiarities. as, assis (m.), a copper. auceps, aucupis, fowler. bos (for bovs), bovis (c.), ox, cow. G. Pi. bourn. D. Ab. bubus, bobus. caput, capitis (n.), head. anceps, ancipitis, two-headed. praeceps, -cipitis, headlong. caro, carnis (f.),Jlesh. PL G. carnium. Cere's, Cereris, Ceres. far, farris (n.) spelt. fel, fellis (n.), gall. femur, femoris (n.), thigh. feminis. iter, itineris (n.), way, route. iecur, iecoris (n.), liver. iecinoris, iecineris, iocineris. luppiter, lovis. mel, mellis (n.), honey. nix, nivis (f .), snow. OS, ossis (n.), bone (48 B.). 8s, 6ris (n.), mouth. pollis, jwllinis (m.), flour. sanguis, sanguinis (m.), Wood. senex, senis, oW wiaw. supellex, supellectilis (f .), furniture. Venus, Veneris, Venus. ADJECTIVES. 72. The adjective adds a quality to the substantive. Ad- jectives have the same declension as substantives, and accord- ing to the stem-characteristic are of the First and Second, or Third Declension. Adjectives of the First and Second Declension. 73. Stems in -o for masculine and neuter, -a for feminine ; nominative in -us, -a, -urn ; (er), -a, -um. The same variations in termination occur as in the substantives ; except that adjectives in -ius form Singular Genitive and Vocative regu- larly. See 33, E. i and 2. Bonus, bona, bonum, good. M. p. N. M. F. N. SG.— N. bonus, bona, bonum. PL.— bonl, bonae, bona. 6. bonl, bonae, boni. bonorum, bonarum, bonorum. D. bono, bonae, bond. bonis, bonis, bonls. Ac. bonum, bonam, bonum. bonos, bonas, bona. V. bone, bona, bonum. boni, bonae, bona. Ab. bono, bona, bono. bonis, bonis, bonis. Miser, misera, miserum, wretched. SG.— N. miser, misera, miserum. PL.— miseri, miserae, misera. 6. miseri, miserae, miseri. miserorura, miserarum, miseroriun, D. misero, miserae, misero. miserls, miserls, miserls. Ac. miserum, miseram, miserum. miseros, miseras, misera. V. miser, misera, miserum. miseri, miserae, misera. Ab. miserS, misera, misero. miserls, miserls, miserls. 38 ADJECTIVES. Piger, pigra, pigrom, slow. So.— N. piger, pigra, pigrum. PL.— pigri, pigrae, pigra. G. pigri, pigrae, pigri. pigrorum, pigrarum, pigrorum. D. pigrS, pigrae, pigr5. pigris, pigrls, pigris. Ac. pigrum, pigram, pigrum. pigros, pigras, pigra. V. piger, pigra, pigrum. pigri, pigrae, pigra. Ab.pigro, pigjra, pigrS. pigris, pigris, pigris. REMARK. — For irregularities in the declension of ambo, both, duo, two, see 95 ; for meus, my, see 100, R. i. 74. Stems in -ro follow the same principle in the forma- tion of the Nominative masculine as the substantives, except that -us is retained in ferus, wild, properus, quick, praepro- perus, praeposterus, absurd, inferus, lower (infer is early), superus, upper (super is early), and a few others in late Latin ; also when -ro is preceded by a long vowel ; as, austerus, harsh, maturus, early, procerus, tall, purus, pure, severus, serious, sincerus, sincere, serus, late, verus, true. REMARKS. — i. Dextera, dexterum, etc., right, are found side by side with dextra, dextrum, etc., throughout the language (see 8, 2). CAESAR uses only the shorter form. 2. A few adjectives of this class lack the Nom. Sing, wholly or in part ; so there is no cSterus or posterns in the classical period. 75. NOTES ON THE CASES. — 1. The Gen. Sing, in -I from adjectives In -ius occurs occasionally in inscriptions and in late authors. The Gen. Sing. fern, in early Latin had sometimes 51, arid in inscriptions occasionally -aes and -as. 2. The Dat. Sing. fern, in early Latin occasionally ended in -SI, and in the oldest inscriptions in -5. 3. In early inscriptions the -d of the Abl. is occasionally retained. 4. Very rarely in early inscriptions does the Nom. PL masc. end in -els, and in one case the Nom. PI. fern of a perfect participle ends in -SI. 5. In poetry, but at all periods, we find -um alongside of -Srtun and -arum in the Gen. Plural. 6. In the Dat. and Abl. PL -ils from adjectives in -ius is often contracted to Is ; usually in names of months and in adjectives formed from proper names. In early inscriptions -abus is found occasionally for -Is in the Dat. and Abl. PL feminine. 76. The so-called pronominal adjectives alter, one of the two; altemter (a combination of alter and uter), either of the two ; alius, other; neuter, neither ; nullus, none; solus, sole ; totus, whole ; ullus, any ; unus, one ; uter, which of the two, and their compounds, show the following variations in declension • ADJECTIVES. 39 1. They usually make the Gen. Sing, in -Ius for all genders. REMARKS. — i. The Gen. alius is very rare, and as a possessive its place is usually taken by alignus. 2. The I of the ending -Ius (except in alius) could be shortened in poetry. .This was usually the case with alter, and regularly in the compounds of uter ; as, utriusque. NOTE.— The regular forms are early and rare ; in classical prose only nulll (Cic. Eosc. Cam. 16, 48) and occasionally aliae. 2. They usually make the Dat. Sing, in -I. NOTE. — Regular forms are sometimes found, but in classical prose only alterae, null5, toto, and perhaps tStae. AH is found in early Latin for alii. 3. In the compound alteruter we find usually both parts declined ; sometimes the second only. 4. Alius makes Nom. and Ace. Sing, neuter irregularly : aliud. NOTE.— Alis and alid, for alius and aliud, are early and rare ; the latter, however, occurs several times in LUCK, and once in CATULLUS. Adjectives of the Third Declension. 77. The declension of the adjectives of the Third Declen- sion follows the rules given for the substantives. Most adjectives of the Third Declension are vowel stems in -i, with two (rarely three) endings in the Nominative. The remaining adjectives of the Third Declension are con- sonant stems and have one ending only in the Nominative. ADJECTIVES OF TWO ENDINGS. 78. i. These have (except stems in -ri) one ending in the Nominative for masculine and feminine, one for neuter. Most stems in -i form the masculine and feminine alike, with Nominative in s ; but the Nominative neuter weakens the characteristic i into e. (Compare mare, sea.) 2. Several stems in -i, preceded by r (cr, tr, br), form the Nominative masculine, not by affixing s, but by dropping the i and inserting short e before the r, as, stem acri, sharp, Nom., acer (m.), acris (f.), acre (n.). These adjectives are acer, alacer, campester, celeber, celer, equester, paluster, pedester, puter, saluber, Silvester, terrester, volucer, and the last four months ; and are sometimes called adjectives of three endings. The e belongs to the stem in celer, celeris, celere, swift, and therefore appears in all cases. ADJECTIVES. N. M. F. N. facile, acer, sharp, acris, acre, facilis, acris, acris, acris, facili, acri, acri, acri, facile, acrem, acrem, acre, facile, acer, acris, acre, facili. acri. acri. acri. facilia, acres, acres, acria, facilium, acrium, acrium, acrium, facilibus, acribus, acribus, acribus, facilia, acres (Is), acres (is), acria, facilia, acres, acres, acria, facilibus. acribus. acribus. acribus. M. and F. SG. — N. facilis, easy. 6. facilis, D. facili, Ac. facilem, V. facilis, Ab. facili. PL.— N. faciles, G. facilium, D. facilibus, Ac. faciles (Is), V. faciles, Ab. facilibus. REMARK. — Stems in -ali and -ari differ from the substantival declen- sion in not suffering apocope in the Nom. Sing, neuter, except occa- sionally capital. See 56. 79. REMARKS. — i. Many adjectives of two endings (except stems in -ri) have also -e in the Ablative. This is found chiefly in the poets, very rarely, if ever, in classical prose, occasionally in early and pre- Augustan prose, and more often in inscriptions. When, however, these adjectives become proper names, -e is the rule. See 57, R. 2, N. 2. The Gen. PL in -urn is found occasionally in inscriptions, fre- quently in the poets. In classical prose are found only Titiensum and familiarum. NOTES. — 1. The Nom. PI. has in early Latin not unfrequently -Is. 2. In the Ace. PL, masc. and fern., of adjectives, the ending -Is (els) is found along- side of -Ss in every period of the language, though in decreasing proportion, and after the Augustan period principally in omnls. ADJECTIVES OF ONE ENDING. 80. Adjective stems of one ending (consonant stems) close with 1, r, s, a p mute, a k mute, or a t mute. Examples are : vigil, alert, memor, mindful, pauper, poor, cicur, tame, pubgs, adult, vetus, old, vigilis. memoris. pauperis. cicuris. puberis, veteris. ir ops, poor, inopis. trux, savage, trucis. particeps, sharing, participis. audax, bold, fellx, lucky, audacis. fellcis. caelebs, unmarried, caelibis. duplex, double, fer5x,./2 duplicis. ferocis. dives, rich, deses, slothful, compos,posses8edof, prudens, wise, concors, harmcnious, dlvitis. desidis. compotis. prudentis. coacordis. ADJECTIVES. 41 Present active participles are also consonant stems and follow the same declension. 81. The stem varieties are : 1. Liquid stems in (a) -1: vigil (G. vigil-is), alert, pervigil; (b) -r: par(G. par-is), equal, impar (these two lengthen the vowel in the Nom.), compar , and three others ; pauper (G. pauper-is), poor, uber ; memor (G. memor-is), mindful, im- memor ; concolor (G. -6r-is), and three other compounds of color ; degener (G. -er-is), from genus (G. gener-is). 2. Sibilant stems in (a) -s : exos (G. exoss-is), boneless (LucR.) ; (b) -r : gnarus (G. gnarur-is ; PLAUT.), Ligus, vetus ; pubgs (G. puber-is), impubes. 3. Mute stems in (a) a K-mute : audax (G. audac-is), bold, and four others ; fglix (G. fslic-is), pernix, atrox (G. atrSc-is), ferSx, v6l6x ; exlgx (G. -16g-is) ; trux (G. truc-is), redux ; the multiplicatives in -plex (G. -plic-is), as simplex, etc. (b) A P-mute : inops (G. inop-is) ; caelebs (G. caelib-is) ; compounds of -ceps (G. -cip-is, from capere), as particeps, and of -ceps (G. -cipit-is, from caput), as anceps, prae- ceps (PLAUT. sometimes uses, in the Nom., ancipes, praecipes, etc.). (c) A T-mute : hebes (G. hebet-is) and three others ; locuplSs (G. -pl6t-is) and three others ; dives (G. dlvit-is), for which in poetry dls (G. dlt-is), SOSpes ; compos (G. compot-is), impos ; superstes (G. -sti-tis), ales ; exherSs (G. ed-is) ; dSses (G. dSsid-is), reses ; compounds from substantives : consors (G. -sort-is), exsors ; concors, dis- cors, misericors, socors, vecors ; expers (G. -ert-is), iners, sellers ; amens (G. ament-is), demens ; intercus (G. cut-is) ; pernox (G. -noct-is) ; tope's (G. -ped-is), quadrupSs, alipes ; adjectives and participles in -ans, -6ns (G. -ant-is, -ent-is) • and proper names in -as (G. at-is), -is (G. -it-is), -ns (G. -nt-is), -rs (G. -rt-is), Arplnas, Samnls, Veiens, Gamers. 82. The consonant stems have the same forms in all the genders, except that in the Accusative Singular, and in the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, the neuter is distinguished from the masculine and feminine. In the oblique cases they follow in part the declension of vowel stems ; thus, 1. In the Ablative Singular they have I and e — when used as adjectives commonly I ; when used as substantives com- monly e. The participles, as such, have e ; but used as substantives or adjectives, either e or i, with tendency to I. 2. In the neuter Plural they have ia ; except vetus, old, which has vetera. Many have no neuter. 3. In the Genitive Plural they have : ium, when the stem- characteristic is preceded by a long vowel or a consonant ; um, when the characteristic is preceded by a short vowel. The participles have ium. 42 ADJECTIVES. M. and P. N. M. and F. N. M. and F. N. So — N. f€lix,lucky,Rllx, priid5ns,wMf, prudens, vetus, old, vetus, G. felicis, fellcis, prudentis, prftdentis, veteris, veteris, D. fellci, feiicl, prudent!, prfldentl, veteri, veteri, Ac. felicein, felix, prudentem, prudens, veterem, vetus, V. felix, fellx, prudens, prudens, vetus, vetus, Ab. fgllcl(e) felicl(e) prfidentl(e) prudent! (e) vetere(l) vetere(i) PL.— N. felices, felicia, prudentes, prudentia, vetere"s, vetera, G. felicium, fSlicium, prudentium, prfldentium, veterum, veterura, D. fellcibus, fellcibus, prudentibus, prudentibus, veteribus, veteribus, Ac. felices, felicia, prudentes, prudentia, veteres, vetera, V. fgllces, felicia, prudentes, prudentia, veteres, vetera, Ab. fellcibus, fellcibus. prudentibus, prudentibus. veteribus, veteribus. M. and F. N. M. and F. N. So.— N. amans, loving, amans, PL.— amantes, amantia, G. amantis, amantis, amantium, amantium, D. amanti, amanti, amantibus, amantibus, Ac. amantem, amans, amantes (Is), amantia, Y. amans, amans, amantes, amantia, Ab. amante (I). amante (D. amantibus. amantibus. 83. REMARK. — In early fyid late Latin, and at all periods in the poets, -e is often found for -I in the Abl. Singular. In classical prose we find regularly compote, deside, impubere, participe, paupere, pubere, superstite, vetere, and frequently divite (but always ditl), quadrupede, sapiente. With participles, -I is usual when they are used as adjectives, but classical prose shows -e also in antecedens, candens, consentiens, despicicns, effluens, bians, imminens, influens, profluens, consequens (but sequens not before LIVY), titubans, vertens. NOTES.— 1. In the Nom. and Ace. PL -Is for 6s belongs to early Latin and the poets, but a few cases of the Ace. are still found in CICEKO. In the case of participles -Is is very common, and is the rule in VERGIL and HORACE. In the neuter, -a for -ia is found only in ubera, vetera ; dltia is always used for the unsyncopated form dlvitia. 2. Compound adjectives, whose primitives had -nm in Gen. PL, have usually -urn instead of -ium ; quadrupes, quadrupedum, and other compounds of p6s ; inops, inopum ; supplex, supplicum. Also, cicur , cicurum ; vetus, veterum ; dives, divitum; locuples, locuplStum (rare, usually -ium). In the poets and hi later writers, -urn is not unfrequently found where classical prose uses -ium. Irregular Adjectives. 84. A. ABUNDANTIA. i. Some adjectives which end in -us, -a, -um, in the classical times, show occasionally in early Latin, in the poets, and in later Latin, forms in -is, -e, e. g.t imbecillus and imbecillis; InfrSnus and Infrenis; biiugus and biiugis ; violentus and violens ; indecorus and indecoris ; so also perpetuus and pcrpes. In a number of other adjectives the variant forms are very rare or disputed. ADJECTIVES. 43 2. Many adjectives which end in -is, -e, in the classical times, show parallel forms in -us, -a, -um, in early Latin, and more rarely in late Latin. Adjectives in -us, -a, -um, in early Latin, seem to have had a tendency to go over into forms in -is, -e. Thus, hilarus is the regular form in early Latin ; in CICERO it is used side by side with hilaris, and later hilaris is universal. Other examples in the classical period are inermis and inermus ; imberbis and imberbus ; alaris and alarius ; ausiliaris and auxiliarius ; intercalaris and intercalarius ; talaris and talarius. 85. B. DEFECTIVE. 1. Several adjectives lack a Nom. Singular, wholly or in part : as, cetera (f.), ceterum, perperum (n.), nuperum (n.), primoris (G.), bimaris (G-.), bimatris (Gr.), tricorporis (Gr.), and a few others. 2. Some adjectives are defective in other cases : thus, exspes and perdius, -a are found only in the Nom. ; exlex only in the Nom. and Ace. (exlggem) ; pernox only in Nom., Abl. (pernocte), and Nom. PI. (pernoctSs, rare) ; centimanus has only the Ace. Sing. (HoB., Ov.) ; also unimanus (Liv.), and a few others. C. INDECLINABLES. NSquam ; potis, and pote (early) ; frugf ; macte (mactus, -um, very rare) ; necesse, necessum, and necessus (early and poetical) ; volup and volupe (early) ; and the judicial dainnas. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 86. The Degrees of Comparison are : Positive, Compara- tive, and Superlative. The Comparative is formed by adding to the consonant stems the endings -ior for the masculine and feminine, and -ins for the neuter. The Superlative is formed by adding to the consonant stems the endings -is-simus, -a, -um (earlier -is-sumus). Vowel stems, before forming the Comparative and Super- lative, drop their characteristic vowel. POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. M. and F. N. altus,a,um, high, altior, higher, altius, altissimus, a, um, highest. fortis, e, brave, fortior, fortius, fortissimus. utilis, e, useful, utilior, utilius, utilissimus. audax, bold, audacior, audacius, audacissimus. prudSns, wise, prudentior, prudentius, prudentissimus. NOTE.— In early Latin we find very rarely -i5s for ior ; also -ior used for the neuter ae well. 44 ADJECTIVES. Peculiarities. 87. i. Adjectives in -er add the Superlative ending (-rumus) -rimus (for -simus by assimilation ; see 9, i) directly to the Nominative mascu- line. The Comparative follows the rule. POSITIVE. COMPABATIVB. SUPERLATIVE. miser, a, urn, wretched, miserior, miserius, miserrimus. celer, is, e, swift, celerior, celerius, celerrimua. acer, acris, acre, sharp, acrior, acrius, acerrimus. REMARKS. — i. Dexter, right, and sinister, left, have always dexterior and sinisterior in the Comparative. Deterior, worse, dSterrimus, lacks a Positive. 2. Vetus, old, has Comp. veterior (archaic) or vetustior ; Sup., veterrimus. Maturus, ripe, has occasionally Sup. maturrimus in addi- tion to the normal maturissimus. NOTE. — In early Latin and in Inscriptions this rule is occasionally violated. Thus celerissimus in ENNIUS ; integrissimus, miserissimus, in inscriptions. 2. Some Comparatives in -er-ior, whqse Positive is lacking or rare, form the Superlative either in -remus by metathesis ; or in -imus or -umus ; or in both. These are: citerior, on this side, citimus (rare); exterior, outer, extre*mus, extimus (latter not in Cic.) ; dexterior (87, i, R. i ; once in Cic.), dextimus (rare ; not in Cic.) ; Inferior, lower, Infinras, imus ; interior, inner, intimus ; posterior, hinder, postremus, postumus ; superior, upper, suprSmus, summus. 3. Six adjectives in -ilis add -limus to the stem, after dropping -i, to form the Superlative ; perhaps by assimilation : facilis, easy ; difficilis, hard; similis, like ; dissimilis, unlike; gracilis, slender, and humilis, low. facilis, Comp. facilior, Sup. facillimus. 4. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, -volus, borrow the Comparative and Superlative from the participial forms in -dlcens, -ficens, and -volgns. benevolus, benevolent, Comp. benevolentior, Sup. benevolentissimus. maledicus, scurrilous. maledicentior, maledicentissimus. magnificus, distinguished. magnificentior, niagnificentissimus. NOTE.— BenevolSns, malevolens, maledicSns, still occur in early Latin. 5. In like manner egenus and prSvidus form their Comparative and Superlative. egSnus, needy, egentior, egentissimus. providus, far-sighted, prSvidentior, pr5videntissim.ua. ADJECTIVES. 45 6. Adjectives in -us (os), preceded by a vowel (except those in -quos), form the Comparative and Superlative by means of magis and maxime, more and most. idoneua,./?<, Comp. magis idSneus, Sup. maximS idoneus. But antiques, old, Comp. antlquior, Sup. antlquissimus. REMARK. — But plus, pious, which lacks the Comparative, forms the Superlative regularly, piissimus (in inscriptions also pientissimus) ; like- wise in late Latin, impius. NOTES. — 1. A few words, chiefly in early Latin, show the normal comparison. In Cic. only, assiduissimS (adv.) and alsius. 2. Comparison by means of plus and plurimum is late. 7. Some Comparatives and Superlatives are in use, whilst the cor- responding Positive is either lacking or rare. So deterior (87, i, B. i) ; 8cior, swift, ocissimus ; potior, better, potissimus ; exterior, outer (87, a), from exterus, on the outside, and prep, extra, without; superior, upper (87, 2), from superus, on the top, and prep, supra, above ; Inferior, lower (87, 2), from Inferus, below, and prep, infra, below ; posterior, hinder (87, 2), from posterus, coming after, and prep, post, after ; citerior, on this side (87, 2), from citer, and prep, citra, on this side. f8. The Positive stem of existing Comparatives is sometimes met with only in a preposition or an adverb ; as, ante, before ; anterior, that is before ; prope, near ; propior, proximus ; ulterior, further, ultimus, from ultra, beyond; interior, inner, intimus, from intra, within; prior, former, primus, first, from pro, before ; sequior (late), worse, from secus. 9. Many adjectives lack one or both of the degrees of comparison ; especially those denoting material, relationship, time, etc. Novus, new, falsus, untrue, meritus, deserved, have no Comparative. Longinquos, afar, propinqnos, near, salutaris, healthful, iuvenis, young (Com- parative iunior), and senex, old (Comparative senior), have no Superlative. "Youngest" and "oldest" are expressed by minimus, maximus (natu). NOTE.— The Plautine and late medioximus, middlemost, lacks Positive and Com- parative. 10. Dives, rich, shows in Cic. only divitior and dlvitissimus ; otherwise the Comparative and Superlative are found principally in poetry and later prose, the more usual forms being the syncopated ditior, ditissimus. k88. Participles used as adjectives are subject also to the ame laws of comparison : as, amans, loving, amantior, unantissimus ; apertus, open, apertior, apertissimus. 46 ADJECTIVES. 89. The Superlative follows the declension of adjectives of Three Endings of the First and Second Declensions. The Comparative is declined according to the Third Declension, thus : M. andF. N. M. and F. N. So.— N. altior, altius. PL.— altiorSs, altiora. G. altioris, altioris. altiorum, altiorum. J). altiori, altiorl. altioribus, altioribus. Ac. altiorem, altius. altiores, altiora. V. altior, altius. altiores, altiora. Ab. altiore and -I, altiore and -I. altioribus, altioribus. REMARKS. — i. In classical prose the Abl. Sing, ends »n -e. In the poets and in early and late prose often in -I. 2. Extremely rare is the ending -is for -6s in the Nom. Plural. In the Ace. PI. this ending -Is (-els) is more common but still not fre- quent, and confined mainly to plurls, minorls, maiorls, melioris. The neuter in -ia is found rarely in compluria, and perhaps once in pluria. 3. The Gen. PL in -ium is found in plurium and complurium only. 90. Irregular Comparison. bonus, good, melior, melius, optimus. malus, bad, peior, peius, pessimus. magnus, great, maior, maius, maximus. parvus, small, minor, minus, minimus, multus, much, 8. — plus (no Dat. nor Abl.), plurimus. PI. plurSs, plura. complurSs, complura and -ia. nequam, worthless, nSquior, ngquius, nequissimus. firugi (indecl.), frugal, frugalior, frugalissimus. ADVERBS. 91. Most adverbs are either oblique cases or mutilated forms of oblique cases of nominal or pronominal stems. The cases from which they are derived are principally the Accusative and the Ablative. i. (a) From the Accusative are Substantival Adverbs in -tim. This was a favorite formation, and is used very often in all periods. In the classical times the adverbs of this form are : Acervatim, articulatim, centuriatim, certatim, generatim, gradatim, gregatim, membratim, paulatim, prlvatim, separatim, singulatim, statim, summatim, virltim, tributim, strictim, pedetemptim, raptim, furtim, partim, praesertim, confestim, and a few others ; disguised forms of -tim are : caesim, in- cisim, sensim, cursim, passim, vicissim, for caed-tim (9, 1-3), etc.; also interim. ADVEEBS. 47 (I) A few very common adverbs are, perhaps, from Accusative Sin- gular feminine of adjectives and pronominal stems. Chiefly clam, secretly, coram, in one's presence, palam, openly, perperam, wrongly, tarn, so, quam, as, aliquam, some, iam, already; and forms in -fariam, as bi- fariam, multifariam, etc. (c) The Accusative Singular neuter of many adjectival and prono- minal stems is used as an adverb. This is true of all Comparatives. Multum, much ; paulum, a little ; nimiurn, too much ; cSterum, for the rest; primum, first; postremum, finally; potissimum, chiefly ; facile, easily ; dulce, sweetly ; trlste, sadly ; impune, scot-free ; aliquantum, somewhat, and others. To the Comparatives belong magis, more ; nimis, too ; satis, enough. (d) The Accusative Plural feminine is found in alias, at other times, perhaps in foras, out-of-doors. The Accusative Plural neuter is found in alia, cetera, omnia, and occasionally in reliqua and a few others. 2. (a) From the Ablative are some substantival adverbs ; the princi- pal ones in classical Latin being domo, at home; impendio, greatly; initio, at the outset ; modo, only ; oppido, very; principio, in the begin- ning ; private, privately ; vulgo, commonly ; forte, by chance ; magnopere, greatly, and other compounds of -opere ; gratiis, for nothing, and ingra- tils, and a few others. (5) Ablatives are also adverbs in 8 from adjectives in -us and -er : altus, lofty, alts ; pulcher, beautiful, pulchrS ; miser, wretched, misers. Also fer6 and ferine (Sup.), almost. (c) The Ablative of some adjectives and pronouns serves as an adverb : tuto, safely; falsS, falsely ; perpetuo, ceaselessly ; continue, forthwith; improvise, unexpectedly ; prlmo, at first ; h5c, here; ist6, there, etc. (d) In a few cases the adverbial form is the Abl. Sing, feminine : alia, otherwise ; aliqua, somehow}; dextera and dextra, to the right ; sinistra and laeva, to the left hand; qua, on which side; recta, straightway, and some others. (e) A large number of these adjectives show adverbs in two end- ings, sometimes with a difference in meaning : consults and consults, purposely ; certs, at least, and certo, certainly (certe scio, / certainly know ; certo scio, J know for certain) ; rar6, thinly, and rar6, seldom ; vSrS, in truth, and vSro, true but ; rSctS, correctly, and recta, straightway ; dextera or dextra, to the right ; and dexterS, skilfully. (/) Ablatives are also qul, how (archaic), nSqulquam, to no purpose; aliSqul, otherwise; perhaps also diu, by day, and its compounds. 48 ADVERBS. 3. Locative in origin are the following, in addition to those men- tioned under 37, 5 : dig (in combination with numeral adjectives in early Latin, as die septimi) and its compounds cottidie, daily, hodie, to- day, pridie, the day before, postrldie, the day after ; quotannis, yearly ; foris, outside. Also many forms from the pronominal stems, as hie, illic, istic (isti belongs to early Latin and VERG.); sic, so, ut (uti, utei), as; ibi, there, and its compounds alibi, ibidem ; ubi (cubi), where, and its compounds. 4. A number of adverbs cannot be referred to. a definite case, as : adverbs of separation: bine, hence, illinc (illim), istinc (istim), thence; temporal adverbs : tune, then, cum, when, quondam, once, quando, when ? and its compounds; also, ante, before ; post (poste), after; paene, almost ; prope, propter, near ; saepe, often ; circiter, around; praeter, past ; ergo, therefore; eras, to-morrow ; baud (hau, haut), not ; item, likewise ; susque deque, up and down ; viz, scarcely. 92. i- Adjectives and participles of the Third Declension form their adverbs by adding -ter (-iter) to the stem ; stems in -nt dropping the t, and stems in a k-mute inserting the connecting vowel i before the end- ing ; also a few adjectives of the Second Declension : fortis, brave, fortiter ; ferox, wild, ferSciter ; prudSns, foreseeing, priidenter. Exceptions : audax, bold, audac-ter (seldom audaciter) ; difficilis, hard to do, difficulter, difficiliter (but generally, n5n facile, vix, aegrg), and others. 2. A large number of adjectives of the Second Declension in -us, -a, -urn, and -er, -era, -erum, form in early and late Latin their adverbs by dropping the stem vowel and adding -iter (those in -tus added -er only). Many of these occur in classical writers alongside of the normal form in -6 : humaniter and humane, humanely ; largiter and large, lavishly ; turbulenter and turbulente, riotously. 3. Some adverbs of origin are formed from substantival or adjectival stems by the ending -tus. In classical Latin mainly antlquitus, from early time; dlvlnitus, from the gods ; funditus, from the foundation ; peni- tus, from the depths ; radicitus, from the, roots ; also intus, from within. 4. The termination -versus, -vorsum, is used to show direction whither ; but in classical Latin it is found principally in the adverbs : intrSrsus (intrSvorsus), inwards; prorsus (-um), onwards; rursus (-urn, rusum), back ; sursum (susum), up; vorsum, towards. 5. A very large number of adverbs are formed by adding various other terminations ; as, -de : inde, thence, unde, whence ; -dem : pridem, long ago, itidem, likewise, etc. ; -do : quandS, when, etc. ; •darn : quondam, once ; -dum : dudum, a while ago ; vixdum, hardly yet, etc.; -per: nuper, lately, parumper, a little, semper, always, etc.; -quam: umquam, ever, numquam, never, etc.; -secus: ertrinsecus, outside, etc.; -tenus: quatenus, how far 9 etc. NUMERALS. 49 6. Syntactical and miscellaneous : admodum, very (to a degree), dSnuo, anew, imprimis ; super, above, and its compounds, desuper, insuper ; ex- templo, at once ; usque, to, and its compounds ; invicem, in turn ; adeo, so / antea, before ; interea, meanwhile ; postea, after ; praeterea, besides ; propterea, on that account, and a few others. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 93. The Comparative of the adverb is the Accusative neuter of the Comparative of the adjective. The Superla- tive ends in -is-sime, -er-rim6, etc., according to the Super- lative of the adjective. POSITIVE. altS, loftily, pulchre, beautifully, miserS, poorly, fortiter, bravely, audacter, boldly. tut5, safely, facile, easily, bene, well. male, ill, [parvus], small. [magnus], great, multum, much, cito, quickly, diu, long, saepe, often, nuper, recently, satis, enough, COMPARATIVE. altius, pulchrius, miserius, fortius, audacius, tutius, facilius, melius, peius, minus, less, magis, more, plus, more, citius, diutius, saepius, SUPERLATIVE. altissime. pulcherrime. miserrime. fortissime. audacissime. tutissime. facillime. optime. pessime. minimS, least. maxiine, most. plurimum. citissime. diutissimS. saepissime. nuperrimS. satius, better, NUMERALS. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 94. The Cardinal numerals answer the question qnot, how many? and are the numbers used in counting. The Ordinal numerals are derived from these and answer the question quotus, which one in the series ? They are as fol- lows : 2. ORDINAL NUMBERS. primus, -a, -urn (prior) secundus (alter) tertius quartus quintus sertus septimus 1. CARDINAL, NUMBERS. 1 I unus, una, unum 2 II duo, duae, duo 3 III tres, tria 4 IV quattuor 5 V qulnque G VI sex 7 VII septem 4 NUMERALS. 1. CABDINAL NUMBERS. 8 VIII oetO 9 IX novem 10 X decem 11 XI Go'decim 12 XII duojdecim 13 XIII tre&ecim 14 XIV quattuordecini 15 XV quio;decim 16 XVI sejlecim 17 XVII septendecim 18 XVIII duodeylgintl 19 XIX undeVlginti 20 XX viginti 21 XXI vigintl unus 22 XXII vlginti duo 23 XXIII vigintl trgs 24 XXIV vlginti quattuor 25 XXV vlginti qulnque 26 XXVI vigintl sex 27 XXVII vigintl septem 28 XXVIII duodeplginta 29 XXIX undetriginta 30 XXX trlginta 40 XL quadraginta 50 L quinquaginta 60 LX sexdginta 70 LXX septwaginta 80 LXXX octoginta 90 xc n5naginta 100 c centum 101 CI centum et unus 115 cxv centum et qulndecim 120 cxx centum et viginti 121 CXXI centum vigintl unus 200 CO ducentl, -ae, -a 300 ccc trecentl 400 cccc quadrmgentl 500 D(IQ) qytingenti 600 DC .sr.s-centl 700 DCC septiwgentl 800 DCCC octtngenti 900 DCCCC Ttongenti 1000 M (CIO) mille 2. ORDINAL NTTMBEBS. octavus nonus decimus undecimus duodecimus tertius decimus quartus decimus qulntus decimus sextus decimus Septimus decimus duodevicesimus undevicgsimus vlcesiimis vicesimus primus vlcesimus secundus vicesimus tertius vlcgsimus quartus vlcesimus qulntus vlcesimus seztus vlcesimus septimus duodetricesimua undgtricgsimus tricesimus quadragSsimus quinquaggsimus sexagesimus septuagesimus octoggsimus nonagesimus centesimus centesimus primus [mus centesimus (et) quintus deci- centesimus vlcesimus centesimus vicesimus primus ducentesimus trecentesimus quadringentesimus quingentesimus sescentesimus septingentesimus octingentesimus nongentesimus millesimus NUMERALS. 1. CARDINAL NUMBERS. 1001 MI mille et unus 1101 MCI mille centum unus 1120 MCXX mille centum viginti [Onus 1121 MCXXI miUe centum viginti 1200 MCC mille ducentl 2000 MM duo niilia (niillia) bina milia 2222 duo milia ducentl vi- ginti duo 5000 100 quinque milia quina milia 10,000 CCIOO decem milia tiena milia 21,000 unum et viginti milia 100,000 centum milia centena milia [milia 1,000,000 decies centena (centum) 2. ORDINAL NUMBERS. millesimus primus millesimus centesimus primus millesimus centesimus vlce- simus [simus primus millesimus centesimus vlc6- millesimus ducentesimus bis millesimus bis millesimus ducentesimus vicesimus secundus quinquies millesimus decies millesimus semel et vlcies millesimus centies millesimus decies centies millesimus 95. The Cardinal numerals are indeclinable, except : unus, one, duo, two, tres, three, the hundreds beginning with ducentl, two hundred, and the plural milia, thousands, which forms milium and milibus. N. duo, two, duae, duo, G. duorum, duarum, duorum, D. duobus, duabus, duobus, A. duos, duo, duas, duo, Ab. duobus, duabus, duobus, M and F. tres, three, trium, tribus, trgs, tris, tribus, N. tria. trium. tribus. tria. tribus. Like dud is declined ambo, -ae, -5, both. REMARKS. — i. For the declension of unus see 76. It occurs also in plural forms in connection with pluralia tantum, as iinls lltteris (Cic. Alt., v. 9, 2), or with another numeral in the sense only ; in the latter sense also with substantives. 2. The Gen. of the hundreds, ducentl, etc,., ends in -umand not -orum. This must be distinguished from the use of the neuter singular in -urn as a collective,, as argenti sescentum (Luc.), a six hundred of silver. 3. The PI. milia, milium, milibus, are treated almost always as sub- stantives, the adjectival form being the Singular. NOTES. — 1. The form oinos for finus is found in early Latin. A Voc. fine is occa- sional (CAT., 37, 17). 2. For duae late Latin shows occasionally duo, and in inscriptions dua, for neuter 52 NUMERALS. duo, is sometimes found. The Gen. duum (old duom) for duSrum is not nnfre- quent. In the Dat. and Abl., duo is found in inscriptions, and for ambobus occasion- ally ambls. In the Ace. PI. masc., duo and ambo for duos and ambos are quite com- mon in early Latin, and also in classical times, but the better forms are duos, ambos. 3. Quattor is found for quattuor occasionally in inscriptions, and in early poetry quattuor was sometimes scanned as a dissyllable. 4. In inscriptions the forms meilia and mlllia are also found. 5. In regard to spelling of the Ordinals we find in early Latin qulnctus as well as qulntus ; septumus arid decumus regularly, and often the endings -gnsimus and -Snsumus in Ordinals from vicgsimus on. 96. 1. Compound Numerals. 1. From 10 to 20, as in the tables, or separately : decem et tr5a. 2. The numbers 18, 19, 28, 29, etc., are commonly expressed by subtraction ; occasionally, as in English, but never in CICERO, and very rarely in other classical authors. duodScentum is not found, and unde- centum but once (PLIN. MAI.). 3. From 20 to 100, the compound numerals stand in the same order as the English : twenty-one, vlginti unus ; or, one and twenty, Onus et (atque) vigintl ; as, twenty-one years old : annos unum et vlginti (vlginti unum), unum et vlginti annos natus. But compounds like septuaginta et tres are not uncommon, though avoided by good writers. 4. From 100 on, et may be inserted after the first numeral, if there be but two numbers ; as, centum quattuor, or centum et quattuor. If the smaller number precedes, the et should be inserted ; likewise in all cases where a word is inserted within the compound numeral, as ducentl anni et vlginti. If there be three numerals, the et is regularly omitted ; exceptions are very rare. 5. In compound ordinals alter is preferred to secundus. 6. Centena milia is often omitted after the numeral adverb decies = 1,000,000 ; especially in stating sums of money. 7. Fractions are expressed by pars (omitted or expressed) in com- •bination with dimidia (|), tertia (£), quarta (J), etc. A Plural numera- tor is expressed by a Cardinal ; as, duae qulntae (f ). The fraction is often broken up ; as, pars dimidia et tertia (% — -J- + $). The even de- nominators could be divided ; as, dimidia tertia (i x J = £). Instead of dimidia without pars, dlmidium is used. 2. Numeral Signs. D is short for 10, M for CIO. Adding O on the right of 10 multiplies by 10 ; 100 = 5000 ; 1000 = 50,000. Putting C before as often as O stands after multiplies the right-hand number by 2 ; CIO = 1000 ; CCIOO = 10,000 ; CCCIOOO = 100,000. A line above multiplies by 1000 ; V = 5000. A line above and at each side multiplies by 100,000: |xim| =1,400,000. These signs may be combined : thus, |xill| XXX VII D or |xni| XXXVII MD = 1,337,500. PLIN., Jf. H. iv., 12, 24. Other signs are \b , J- (inscr.) for 50, <A oo, 0 (inscr.) for 1000, and ® for 100,000 (inscr.), and q for 500,000 (inscr^. NUMERALS. 53 97. 3. Distributive Numerals. 1 singuli, -ae, -a, one each. 30 2 bini, -ae, -a, two each. 40 3 ternl (trim) 50 4 quaternl 60 5 quini 70 6 sen! 80 7 septeni 90 8 octonl 100 9 noveni 102 10 deni 125 11 undgnl 200 12 duodeni 300 13 terni d6nl 400 14 quaternl deni 500 15 quini deni 600 16 sen! deni 700 17 septeni deni 800 18 octonl deni, duodevlceni 900 19 novSni deni, undevicSnl 1000 20 vicenl 2000 21 vlceni singuli 3000 22 vicenl bini, bini et vicenl 10,000 28 duodetrlcenl 100,000 29 iindetrlceni tricenl quadrageni qulnquaggni sexagem septuagenl octogSni nonagenl centeni centeni bini centeni vicenl quini ducenl treceni quadringenl quingeni sexceni fsesceni) septingeni octingeni nongenl singula mflia bina mflia trina mflia dena mflia centena mflia These answer the question quotBni, how many each f REMARKS. — i. The Gen. PI. masc. and neuter ends usually in -urn, except that singulus has always singulorum, and CICERO uses binorum. 2. The Distributives are used with an exactness which is foreign to our idiom, whenever repetition is involved, as in the multiplication table. But when singuli is expressed, the Cardinal may be used. 3. The Distributives are used with pluralia tantum : blnae litterae, two epistles. But with these unl is used for one, trinl for three : unae litterae, trinae litterae. 4. The same rules as to the insertion or omission of et apply to the Distributives as to the Ordinals (96, 1. 3, 4). NOTES.— 1. The poets and later prose writers occasionally use the Distributives for Cardinals, with words other than plQralia tantum (B. 3) ; also some forms of the Singular. Especially noteworthy is the combination trlnum nundinum, which is technical, and therefore found also in model prose. 2. Parallel forms not found in classical times are quadrlni (early, late), and the late du(o)cent€nl, trecenteni, quadringenteni, quingentSni, ses(x)cent6ni, milleni, etc. 54 NUMERALS. 4. Multiplicative Numerals. Only the following forms occur : 1 simplex, single, 5 quincuplex 2 duplex, double, 7 septemplex 3 triplex, triple, 10 decemplex 4 quadruplex, quadruple. 100 centuples These answer the question, how many fold ? 5. Proportional Numerals. Only the following forms occur t 1 simplus, -a, -urn, single, 4 quadruplus 2 duplus, double. 7 septuplus 3 triplus 8 octuplus These answer the question, how many times as great ? 98. NUMERAL ADVERBS. 1 semel, once, 22 bis et vlcies, vlcies et bis, 2 bis, twice. vlcies bis * 8 ter 30 tricies 4 quater 40 quadragies 5 qulnquies (-ens) 50 qulnquagies 6 sexies (-ens) 60 sexagies 7 septies (-ens) 70 septuagies 8 octies (-ens) 80 octogies g novies (-ens) 90 nonagies 10 decies (-ens) 100 centies 11 undecies (-ens) 200 ducenties 12 duodecies, etc. 400 quadringentiSs 13 ter decies, tredecies 500 quingenties 14 quater decies, quattuordecies 600 sexcenties (sescentieo) 15 qulnquies decies, quindecies 700 septingenties 10 sexies decies, sedecies 800 octingenties 17 septies decies 900 nongenties 18 duodevlcies, octies decies 1,000 mlllies 1'J uudevlcies, novies decies 2,000 bis mlllies 20 vlcies 100,000 centies mlllies 21 semel et vicies, vlcies et semel, 1 ,000,000 mlllies mlllies, decies cen- vlcies semel * ties mlllies These answer the question quotiSns (6s) ; how often f • * Not semel Vlcies, bis vicies, etc., because that would be, once twenty times = 20 times ; twice twenty times = 40 times ; this, however, does not hold for numerals be- tween 10 and 20. PRONOUNS. 55 REMARKS. — i. These adverbs, from quinquiSs on, have an older form in -6ns ; quinquiSns. In totiens, so often, and quotiSns, how often, this remained the more usual form in classical times. 2. The combination of an adverb with a distributive adjective was much liked by the Romans : as bis blna for quaterna, etc. But the normal forms are not unfrequent. NOTE. — For the adverbs from undeciSs on, examples are very rare, and some are cited only from the grammarians. So, when two forms are given, one is often due to the grammarians ; thus quInquiSs deciSs, sexies deciSs, are cited only from Pwa- CIAM . The order, too, of compound adverbs varies. PRONOUNS. 99. Pronouns point out without describing. NOTE.— The pronoun is not a word used instead of a noun. The noun says too much, for all nouns (proper as well as common) are originally descriptive ; the pronoun simply points out. The noun says too little, because it cannot express person, as ego, /, tQ, thou ; it cannot express local appurtenance, as hie, this (here), ille, that (there). A. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 100. I. Personal Pronouns of the First Person. SUBSTANTIVE. POSSESSIVE. rneus, -a, -urn, mine or my. So.-N. ego, 7, G. mei, of me, D. mihl, to, for me, Ac. mS, me, Ab. me, from, with, by me. PL.-N. nos, we. G. nostri. of us. nostrum, noster, nostra, nostrum, our or ours. D. nobls, to, for teg. Ac. n5s, us, Ab. nSbis, from, with, by us. REMARKS. — i. The Voc. Sing. masc. of meus is ml, except when meus is used with a substantive which does not change its form in the Voc. ; thus, meus ocellus (PLAUT. ; possibly, however, appositional), but ml anime. 2. Nostrum in the Gen. PI. is the form for the Partitive Genitive. NOTES.— 1. Early Latin shows the following : Sg., N. eg5 ; G. mis ; D. ml, mihei (inscr.) ; mib.6 (inscr.) ; Ac. m8d, rngme" ; Ab. mSd (m6m§ is doubtful) ; PI., N. Ac. 6n5s (in Carmen Arvale only) ; G. nostrdrum, nostraruin (for nostrum) ; D. Ab. nobeis (inscr.). 2. In late Latin ml also serves for the Voc. Sing. fern, and Voc. PI. masc. Meum, nostrum, in the Gen. PI. of the Possessives, are not unfrequent in early Latin. 3. The forms of meus, of tul and tuos, of sul and sues, very frequently suffer Syn- izesis (727) in early Latin. 4. On the combination of these pronouns with -met and -pte see 103, N. 2, 3. 56 PRONOUN'S 101. II. Personal Pronouns of the Second Person. SUBSTANTIVE. POSSESSIVE. So.— N. V. tu, thou, G. tul, of thee, D. tibi, to, for thee, tuns (-os), -a, -urn (-om), thy or thine. Ac. tS, thee, Ab. tB, from, with, by thee. PL.— N. vSs, ye or you, G. vestrl, of you, vestmm, vester (archaic voster), vestra, vestrum, D. vobis, to, for you, your or yours. Ac. vos, you, Ab. vobis, from, with, by you. NOTES.— 1. Early forms are : G. tls ; D. tibel (inscr.), tibg (inscr.) ; Ac. Ab. tSd, t5tS ; Pi. G. vostrl, vostrorum, -arum. 2. Vestrum is for the Partitive Genitive. 3. Tuom and vostrom in the Gen. PL of the Possessives are rare and confined to early X&tin. 4. On Synizesis see 100, N. 3. On combination with -met or -pte see 102, N. 2, 3. III. Personal Pronouns of the Third Person. 102. The original personal pronoun of the third person, together with its possessive, is used only as a reflexive in Latin, and therefore lacks a Nominative. Its place is taken in the oblique cases by the Determinative is (103). DETERMINATIVE. SUBSTANTIVE. POSSESSIVE. SG. — N. [is, ea, id], he, she, it, supplied by the Genitive. G. gins, of him, 6ius, his, hers, its. etc. PL.— N. [el, il, i ; eae, ea], they, G. eorum, earum, eorum, of them, eSrum, earum, e5rum, their or theirs, etc. REFLEXIVE. SUBSTANTIVE. POSSESSIVE. So.-N. G. sul, of him, her, it(setf), suus (-os), -a, -um (-om), his, D. aibl, to, for, him(self), her(self), her(s), its (own). Ac. s5, sSsS, him(self), her(self), Ab. s6, 8§s6, from, with, by him(sey). PL.— N. G. sui, of them(selves), suus (-os), -a, -um (-om), tk&r D. sib!, to, for them(selves), (awti), theirs. Ac. s6, S6s6, them(selves), Ab. s6, Sgs6, from, with, by themselves). PRONOUNS. 57 NOTES.— 1. Inscriptions show sibei. The use of ggsS in classical prose is regulated mainly by artistic reasons. Suom in Gen. PI. from suus is rare and early. 2. The enclitic -met may be added to all the forms of ego (except nostrum), to all the forms of tu (except tu and vestrum), to sibi, sS, and some forms of suus ; egomet, I myself. Instead of tumet, tute is found ; from which early poets formed occasionally tutemet, tutimet. Met is also occasionally appended to forms of meus (early) and tuus (late). 8. The enclitic -pte is joined very rarely to forms of the Personal Pronoun (m6pte, PL., Men. 1059) ; more often to the Abl. Sing, of the Possessives ; it is especially com- mon with su5 ; suopte ingenio, by his own genius. 4. From noster and vester and also from ctiius, whose ? are formed the Gentile adjectives of one ending : nostras, of our country ; vestras, of your country ; cuias, of whose country ? G. nostratis, vestratis, cuiatis. 103. B. DETERMINATIVE PRONOUNS. i. is, he, that. SINGULAR. PLURAL. N. is, ea, id, il, el, I, eae, ea, G. eius, eius, Sins, eorum, earum, eorum, I). .el, el, el, iis, eis, Is, Ac. eum, earn, id, cos, eas, ea, Ab. co, ea, eo. iis, els, is. NOTE. — The following variations in the forms are found : N. it for id (post-cl.) ; G. ellus (inscr.), eius (early poetry) ; D. elel (inscr.), SI, el (early poetry), eae (f .) ; Ac. em, im (early), for earn ; PL N. els, eels, iels, iel (early and rare), for el ; the usual classical form is il ; G. eum (inscr.) for e5rum ; D. eieis, 6elS, iels (inscr.), thus (early poetry and rare) ; the usual classical form is iis. The early forms sum, sana, sos, sas, for earn, earn, eos, eas, are cited by FESTUS. Ace. and Abl. Sing, and Gen. PL often suffer Synizesis in early poetry. 2. Idem (is + dem), the same. SINGULAR. PLURAL. N. Idem, eadem, idem, Idem, eidem, ildem, eaedem, eadem, G. eiusdem, eiusdem, elusdem, eorundem, earundem, eorundem, D. eidem, eidem, eidem, Isdem, elsdem, ilsdem, Ac. eundem, eandem, idem, eosdem, easdem, eadem, Abl. eodem, eadem, eodem, Isdem, elsdem, ilsdem. NOTE.— Variations in form : N. eidem, isdem (inscr., early) for Idem ; D. Idem (inscr.) for eidem; PL N. Idem (more usual in poetry), elsdem, Isdem (inscr.); D. Ab. ilsdem (rare), elsdem (uncommon in classical prose). Synizesis is common. 3. ipse (perhaps is + pse), he, self. SINGULAR. PLURAL. N. ipse, ipsa, ipsum, ipsl, ipsae, ipsa, 6. ipsius, ipslns, ipslus, ipsorum, ipsarum, ipsorum. B. (ipsl,]) ipsl, ipsl, ipsis, ipsis, ipsls, Ac. ipsum, ipsam, ipsum, ipsos, ipsas, ipsa, Ab. ipso, ipsa. ipso. ipsis, ipsis, ipsis. 58 PRONOUN'S. NOTES.— 1. In the earlier time the first part of ipge was also declined, thus : N. eapse ; Ac. eumpse, eampse ; Ab. eopse, eapse- Other forms are doubtful. 2. For ipse the form ipsus was very commonly employed in early Latin, but fades out with TERENCE, and later is only sporadic. 3. Inflectional variations are : D. ips5, ipsae (late) ; PL N. ipsei (inscr.). The few other forms are uncertain. Ipslus is dissyllabic twice in TERENCE. 4. PLAUTUS shows ipsissimus (comp. Gr. avrdraTos), and hi late Latin ipsimua and ipsima are found. A post-Ciceronian colloquialism was isse, issa. 5. Ipse combines with -met : ipsemet and ipsimet (N. PL), both rare. 104. Q. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. I. Demonstrative Pronoun for the First Person. haec, these, horum, his, haec, his. NOTES.— 1. The full forms of hie in -ce are still found in limited numbers hi early Latin ; G. hoiusce (in the phrase huiusce modi, the form is common hi the classical period and later) ; D. holce (inscr.) ; PL N. helsce, hlsce (not uncommon) ; G. horunce (rare) ; D., Ab. hisce (in PLAUT. andTBB. usually before vowels); Ac. hosce, hasce (not uncommon ; occasionally hi Cic.). 2. Other variations in form are : G. huius and huius (in early poetry for metrical reasons); D. hae (rare and early); Ac. hone ; PL N. hel, hels for hi, haec for hae (hi PLAUT. and TER. regularly before vowels or h, occasionally before consonants ; occa- sionally also hi classical times and later) ; G. h5rnnc, harunc (early). PL N. hie for hi and D. Ab. hlbus for his are doubtful. 3. HIc combines with -ne. Usually -ne was appended to hlce, etc., and the e weakened to i. Sometimes -ne is added directly to the regular forms. The examples are frequent hi early Latin, but occur also in Cic. and later writers : hzcine, haecine, hocine, huicine, huncine, hancine, hocine, hacine, haecine (N. PL fem.), haecine (N. PL neut.), hiscine, hoscine, hascine ; also hlcne, haecne, hocne, huiusne, huncne, hancne, hocne, hacne, haecne, hosne, hasne. II. Demonstrative Pronoun for the Second Person. iste, that. hie, this. SG.— N. hie, haec, hoc, PL.— hi, hae, G. huius, huius, huius, horum, haru D. hulc, hulc, hulc, his, his, Ac. hunc, hanc, hoc, hos, has, Abl. hflc, hae, hoc. his, his, So, .— N. iste, ista, istud, PL.— istl, istae, ista, G. istlus, istlus, istlus, istorum, istarum, istorum, D. istl, istl, istl, istis, istis, istis, Ac. istum, istam, istud, istos, istas, ista, Abl. isto, ista, istO. istis, istis, istis. NOTES.— 1. The Dat. Sing, shows ist5 in late and istae in early Latin. 2. Iste combines with -ce. In a very few cases (three times in early, once in late Latin) this -ce is retained unchanged, but usually it is shortened to -c. The following forma occur, all except istuc (more common than istud hi classical Latin) and istaec PRONOUNS. 59 (neuter, occasionally in Cic., Ep. and later), being wholly confined to early and late Latin. N. istic, istaec, istuc (istoc, once) ; D. istic ; Ac. istunc, istanc ; Ab. istoc, istac. Pi. N. istaec (f.), istaec (n.). 3. In a few cases in PLAUT. and TER. -ne is appended to istice, etc., the preceding e being weakened to i : istuciue, istocine, istacine, ist5scin'. III. Demonstrative Pronoun for the Third Person. SG.— N. ille, ilia, illud, PL.— illl, illae, ilia, G. illius, illius, illius, illorum, illarum, illorum, D. mi, mi, mi, illls, illis, illls, Ac. ilium, illam, illud, illos, illas, ilia, Ab. illo, ilia, il!5. illls, illls, mis. NOTES.— 1. The older forms from stem olio- occur on early inscriptions, in laws, and In the poets (except PLAUT. and TER.), even to a very late period, as follows : N. ollus, -e (early) ; D. oil! ; PI. N. olll, olla ; G. ollom, ollarum (early) ; D. olleis, ollls ; Ac. ollSs (early). 2. Inscriptions show illut occasionally for illud. Other rare forms are : G. illl (doubtful); D. illae ; PI. N. illel. Illius is often dissyllabic in early Latin. 3. Hie often combines with -ce, which is, however, usually shortened to -c : illiusce, illace, illoce, illosce, illasce, illlsce, all in early Latin ; shortened forms : N. illic, illaec, illuc ; D. illic ; Ac. illunc, illanc ; Ab. illoc, iliac ; Pi. N. illaec (f.), illaec (n.), all with rare exceptions confined to PLAUTUS and TERENCE. 4. A few cases of combination with -ne : illicine, illancine occur in PLAUTUS and TERENCE. 105. D. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. qul (Substantive and Adjective), who. SG.— N. qul, quae, quod, PL. — qul, quae, quae, G. cuius, cuius, cuius, quorum, quarum, quorum, D. cul, cul, cul, quibus, quibus, quibus, Ac. quern, quam, quod, quos, quas, quae, Ab. quo, qua, quo. quibus, quibus, quibus. General Relatives are : Substantive, quisquis, whoever, Adjective. (qulqui, quaequae, qulcunque, quaecunqne, quidquid, quicquid, quodquod), quodcunque, whatever. whosoever. whichever. NOTES.— 1. Archaic and legal are quis and quid as relatives. 2. The prevalent form of Gen. on inscriptions of the Republican period and in early Latin is quoius ; quius, cuiius, and other variations are also found. Other archaic forms are : D., quoi. D. PL, queis. D. PI. quis is common in the poets at all periods ; and also in prose writers ; but not cited from CAESAR, and only from the letters of CICERO. 3. The Abl. Sing, qul for all genders is the prevalent form in early times, and in combination with cum is preferred to quo, qua by CICERO. 4. Quisquis is occasionally used as an adjective, but not in classical Latin. Occa- sionally, also, but rarely in CICERO, it is used for quisque, quidque. The Nom. Sing. of the adjective quiqul, etc., probably does not occur. In the other cases the forms are 60 PRONOUNS. the same as those of quisquis and can be distinguished only by the usage. In combi- nation with modi we find culcul in Gen. sometimes in CICEKO. In the Plural the only form found is quibusquibus. (Liv. XLI., 8, 10.) 5. In quicumque the -cumque is often separated by tmesis. The only variations in form are quelquomque, quescumque in early Latin, and occasionally qulscumque for quibuscumque (several times in CICERO). 106. E. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. Substantive. quis 1 who ? quid ? what f Adjective. qul ? quae ? quod 1 which ? Subst. and Adj. uter ? utra 1 utrum 1 who, which of two f SG. N. quis ? quid ? who ? what ? POSSESSIVE. G. cuius * cuius 1 whose? ciiius, cuia, cuium, whose ? D. cul ? cul? to, for whom ? Ac. quern 1 quid ? whom ? what ? Ab. qu5 1 qu5 1 from, with, ~by whom or what ? The plural of the substantive interrogative pronoun and both num- bers of the adjective interrogative pronoun coincide with the forms of the relative qul, quae, quod, who, which. Strengthened Interrogatives. Substantive, quisnam ? ivfio, pray f quidnam 7 what, pray t ecquis 1 is there any one who ? ecquid ? Adjective, quinara1? quaenam1? quodnam ? which, pray f ecqull ecqua? (ecquae)? ecquod? REMARK. — In the poets qul is sometimes found as a substantive for quis in independent sentences. In dependent sentences the use always fluctuates. A difference in meaning can hardly be made other than that qul is generally used in much the same sense as qualis. On the other hand, quis is often used as an adjective for qul ; usually, how- ever, the substantive which follows is best looked upon as in apposi- tion. In the classical period qul is the normal form for the adjective in dependent questions. NOTES. — 1. Inscriptions show here and there quit and quot for quid and quod. Quid is sometimes used for quod, but usually in the phrase quid nSmen tibi est and only in early Latin. Sometimes quae seems to be used as a substantive, but another explanation is always possible. 2. In the oblique cases the same variations occur as in the oblique cases of the rela- tive. The Abl. qul means how ? 3. For the declension of uter see 76. 4. The possessive cuius (quoins), -a, -um was used both as relative and as interroga- PRONOUNS. 6 1 tive. It IB frequent in PLATJT. and TEE., but rare in other authors. Besides the Nom. the only forms found are Ac. quoium, quoiam ; Ab. quoia ; PI. N. quoiae, and, perhaps, G. PI. quoium. 5. Quisnam is sometimes used as an adjective for qninam and quinam occasion- ally for quisnam as a substantive. The -nam may be separated by tmesis. Ecquis and ecqul are not common, and are subject to the same fluctuations as quis and qul. Ecquis combines with -nam to form ecquisnam and a few other occasional forme, as : ecquaenam, ecqoidnam, ecquodnam, ecquonam, ecquosiiam. 107. F. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. I. Substantive, aliquis, aliqua (rare), aliquid, ) somebody, some one quis, qua, quid, f or other. Adjective. aliqui, aliqua, aliquod, ) ' I some, any. qui, quae, qua, quod, ) REMARK. — The common rule is that quis and qul occur properly only after si, nisi, n6, num, or after a relative ; otherwise aliquis, aliqui. NOTES.— 1. Aliquis and quis are not unfrequently need as adjectives instead of aliqui, qul, but rarely in early Latin. Occasionally (not hi early Latin) aliqui is used as a substantive. Qul is also so used, but only after si, sin, sive, nS. The use of quid and aliquid for quod and aliquod, and of aliquod for aliquid, is very rare and late. 2. Besides the variations in form mentioned under the relative and interrogative, the indefinitive quis shows quSs as an early form for qul (N. PL), and in PL Nom. Ace. neut. quae and qua in equally good usage. Aliquis shows in Abl. Sing, aliqui (rare and early), in the PL Nom. Ace. neut. always aliqua, and not unfrequently in post- classical Latin aliquis for aliquibus. 2. quldam, quaedam, quiddam (and quoddam), a certain, certain one. REMARK. — Quldam, quaedam occur both as substantives and adjec- tives, but quiddam is always substantive, quoddam always adjective. The Plural is rare in early Latin (never in PLAUTUS). 3. quispiam, quaepiam, quidpiam (and quodpiam), some one, some. quisquam, , quicquam, any one (at all). No plural. NOTES. — 1. quispiam, quaepiam are rare as adjectives. In the neuter, quippiam and quoppiam occur rarely. The comic poets do not use the Plural, and it is rare elsewhere. 2. Quisquam is seldom used as an adjective, except with designations of persons ; seriptor quisquam, any writer (at all), Gallus quisquam, any Gaul (at all). The corresponding adjective is ullus. The use of quisquam as a feminine is only in early Latin. Quidquam is a poor spelling for quicquam. In Abl. Sing, qulquam occurs occasionally. In Sing. Gen. Dat. Ace. frequently, and in Plural always, forms of ullus were used. 62 CORRELATIVES. J quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet (and quodlibet), ) you like, NOTE.— Quivls, quaevis, quilibet (archaic -lubet), quaelibet may be used either as substantives or adjectives, but quidvis, quidlibet are substantives only, quodvls, quodlibet are adjectives only. Peculiar forms of quivls are G. quoivis in quoivls- modi (PLAUT.) ; D., quovls (late) ; Ab., qulvls (PLAUT., TER.), and the compounds cuiusvlscumque (LUCR. in., 388) and qu5viscumque (MART, xrv., 2, 1). Quilibet may be separated by tmesis into qul and libet (SAT.T.., Cat. 5, 4). 5. quisque, quaeque, quidque and quodque, each one. unusquisque, unaquaeque, unumquidque and unumquodqne, each one severally. NOTE.— Quisque occurs occasionally in early Latin as a feminine, and with its forms is not unfrequently found in early and late Latin for quisquis, or quicumque. Quid- que is substantive, quodque adjective. In the Abl. Sing, qulque occurs occasionally. The Plural is regular, but rare until post-classical times. In Nom. PI. quaeque is either fern, or neuter. 108. The declension of the pronominal adjectives has been given in 76. They are : ullus, -a, -urn, any ; nullus, -a, -urn, no one, not one. The correspond- ing substantives are nemo (76) and nihil, the latter of which forms only nibili (Gen.) and nihilo (Abl.), and those only in certain combina- tions. nonnullus, -a, -urn, some, many a, declined like nullus. alms, -a, -ud, another; the Possessive of alius is alienus. alter, -era, -erum, the other, one (of two). neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither of two. alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, the one or the other of the two. uterque, utraque. utrumque, each of two, either, ambo, -ae, -o, both. utervis, utravis, utrumvls. ) , . , . .... . .... ... ' > whichever you please of the two. nterlibet, utraiibet, utrumlibet, \ CORRELATIVES. 109. I. CORRELATIVE PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. INTERROGATIVES. DEMONSTRATIVES. RELATIVES. quis 1 who ? is, that, qul, who. qualis 1 of what talis, such (of that qualis, as (of which kind ? kind), kind). quantus ? how much ? tantus, so much, quantus, as much. quot 1 how many ? tot, so many, quot, as many. COREELATIVE8. 63 110. II. CORRELATIVE PRONOMINAL ADVERBS. 1. Pronominal adverbs of place. ubl ? where ? ibl, there. ubi, where. qua ? where, hie, hae, here, this way. qua, where, which which way 9 way. istlc, istac, there, that way. illic, iliac, there, yonder way. unde ? whence ? inde, thence. unde, whence. hinc, ftewee. istinc, thence. iliinc, thence, from yonder. qu5? whither 9 eo, thither. quo, whither. hue, (hoc,) hither. istuc, (istoc,) thither. illuc, (illoc,) thither, yonder. 2. Pronominal adverbs of £me. quando ] wfte/i F turn, ^e?i. qnandS, when. tune, «£ ^Aa^ it/we, quom, cum. nunc, wow. quotiSns ? Aow o/^e7i F totiens, 50 o/ferc. quotiens, as o/<en as. 3. Pronominal adverbs of manner. quomodo ? qul ? how ? ita, sic, so, thus. ut, uti, as. quam.1? how much f tarn, so much. quam, as. 111. III. COMPOUNDS OF THE RELATIVE FORMS. 1. The relative pronouns become indefinite by prefixing all-: aliquantus, somewhat great; aliquot, several, some; alicubl, some- where ; alicunde, from somewhere ; aliquando, at some time. 2. The simple relatives become universal by doubling themselves, or by suffixing -cunque (-cumque), sometimes -que : quantuscunque, however great ; qualiscunque, of whatever kind; quot- quot, however many ; ublcunque, wheresoever ; quandocuuque, quand8que, whenever ; quotiescunque, however often ; utut, in whatever way ; utcun- qoe, howsoever ; quamquam, however, although. 3. Many of the relatives are further compounded with -vis or -libet : quantuslibet, quantusvis, as great as you please ; ubivls, where you will ; quamvls, as you please, though. 64 THE VERB. THE VERB. 112. The inflection given to the verbal stem is called Con- jugation, and expresses : 1. Person and Number ; 2. Voice — Active or Passive. The Active Voice denotes that the action proceeds from the subject : amo, / love. The Passive Voice denotes that the subject receives the action of the Verb : amor, / am loved. 3. Tense — Present, Imperfect, Future, Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect. The Present, amo, / love ; Future, amabo, / shall love ; Pure Perfect, amavi, / have loved ; Future Perfect, amavero, I shall have loved, are called Principal Tenses. The Imperfect, amabam, I was loving ; Historical Perfect, amavl, I loved ; Pluperfect, amaveram, / had loved, are called Historical Tenses. REMARK. — The Pure and Historical Perfects are identical in form. 4. Mood — Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative. The Indicative Mood is the mood of the fact : amo, / love. The Subjunctive Mood is the mood of the idea : amem, may I love, I may love ; amet, may he love, he may love j si amet, if he should love. The Imperative Mood is the mood of command : ama, love thou ! For further distinctions see Syntax. 5. These forms belong to the Finite Verb. Outside of the Finite Verb, and akin to the noun, are the verbal forms called Infinitive, Supine, Participle, Gerund. The Infinitive active and the Supine are related to the noun, the former being originally a Dative or Locative and the Supine showing two cases, Accusative and Ablative. No adequate uniform translation can be given, but for the general meaning see paradigms. 113. A large number of Verbs have the passive form but THE VERB. 65 are active in meaning : hortor, / exhort. These are called deponent (from deponere, to lay aside). 114. The Inflection of the Finite Verb is effected by the addition of personal endings to the verb stems. 1. The personal endings are mostly pronominal forms, which serve to indicate not only person, but also number and voice. They are : ACTIVE. PASSIVE. SG. — i. -m (or a vowel, coalescing with -r. the characteristic ending) ; Pf . I, 2. -s; Pf. -s-tl; Impv. -t5(d) or want- -riser -re; Impv. -re or -tor. ing, 3. -t ; Impv. t3(d), -tur ; Impv. -tor. PL. — i. -mus, -mur. 2. -tis ; Pf . -s-tis- ; Impv. -te or -tote, -mini. 3. -rit ; Pf . Srunt or Sre ; Impv. -nto(d), -ntur ; Impv. -ntor. 2. The personal endings are added directly to the stem in the Pres- ent Indicative and Imperative only, except in the third conjugation, in some forms of the Future Indicative. In the other tenses certain modifications occur in the stem, or tense signs are employed : (a) In the Present Subjunctive final a of .the stem is changed to g (e) ; final 6 to ea (ea) ; final I to ia (ia) ; final e to a (a). In the Future In- dicative final e is changed to a or 6 (e) ; final i to ia (i6, ie). (b) The tense signs are : for the Imperfect Indicative, ba (ba) ; for the Imperfect Subjunctive, rS (re) ; for the Future Indicative in a and S verbs bl (b, bu) ; for the Perfect Indicative, I (i) ; for the Perfect Sub- junctive, -er! ; for the Pluperfect Indicative, era (era) ; for the Pluper- fect Subjunctive, issS (isse) ; for the Future Perfect Indicative, erl (er). 3. The stem itself is variously modified ; either by change of vowel or by addition of suffixes, and appears in the following forms : (a) The Present stem ; being the stem of the Present, Imperfect, and Future tenses. These forms are called the Present System. (b) The Perfect stem ; being the stem of the Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect tenses. These forms are called the Perfect System. (c) The Supine* stem ; being the stem of the Future Active and Per- fect Passive Participles and of the Supine. These forms are called the Supine System, NOTE.— For details as to the formation of these stems, see 132 ff. * This designation is retained because it is an established terminus technlcus ; as a matter of fact the Supine stem is not the stem of the Participles. 5 66 THE VERB. 115. i- The Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect tenses in the Passive are formed by the combination of the Perfect Passive Parti- ciple with forms of the verb sum, / am. 2. The Future Passive Infinitive is formed by the combination of the Supine with the Present Passive Infinitive of e5, 1 go. 3. The infinite parts of the verb are formed by the addition of the following endings to the stems : ACTIVE. INFINITIVE. Pr. -re, Pf. -isse, Fut. -turum (-a, -am), esse, PARTICIPLES. Pr. -nfl (G. -ntis), Pf. Fut. -torus (-a, -urn). GERUND. GERUNDIVE. •ndl (-d5, -dum, -do). -ndus (-a, -am). PASSIVE. n,L -tas (-ta, -tarn), esse. -turn iri. •tas (-ta, -torn). SUPINE. -torn ; -tu 116. So. — i. sum, 2. es, 3. est, PL. — i. sumus, 2. estis, 3. sunt, So. — i. eram, 2. eras, 3. erat, PL. — i. eramus, 2. eratis, 3. erant, So. — i. er5, 2. eris, 3- erit, PL. — i. erimus, 2. eritis, 3. erunt, THE VERB sum, I am. (Pres. stem es-, Perf. stem fa-) IVE. SUBJUNCTTVE. PRESENT. / am, sim, / be, thou art, sis, tTiou be, he, she, it is. sit, he, she, it be. we are, you are, they are. slmus, sltis, sint, we be, you be, they be. IMPERFECT. / was, essem, thou wast, esses, he was. esset, I were thou wert he were (forem), (fores), (foret). we were, you were, they were, essemus, essetis, essent, we were, you were, they were Iforent)- I shall be, thou wilt be, FUTURE, he will be. we shall be, you will be, they mil be. THE VERB. 67 PERFECT. So. — i. fill, I have been, I fuerim, I have, may have, teen, was, 2. fuistX, thou hast been, fueris, thou have, mayest have, thou wast, been, 3. fait, he has been, he fuerit, he have, may have, been. was. PL. — i. fuimus, we have been, we fuerlmus, we have, may have, been, were, 2. fuistis, you have been, fueritis, you have, may have, you were, been, 3. fuerunt, fuere, they have fuerint, they have, may have, been, they were. been. PLUPERFECT. So. — i. fueram, 1 had been, fuissem, I had, might have, been, 2. fueras, thou hadst been, fuissSs, thou hadst, mightst have, 3. fuerat, he had been. fuisset, he had, might have, been. PL. — i. fueramus, we had been, fuissgmus, we had, might have, been, 2. fueratis, you had been, fuissStis, you had, might have, been, 3. fuerant, they had been. fuissent, they had, might have, been. FUTURE PERFECT. SG. — i. fuero, I shall have been, 2. fueris, thou wilt have been, 3. fuerit, he will have been. PL. — i. fuerlmus, we shall have been, 2. fueritis, you will have been, 3. fuerint, they will have been. IMPERATIVE. INFINITIVE. PRESENT. FUTURE. PRES. esse, to be, So. — i. , , PERF. fuisse, to have been, 2. es, be thou, est5, thou shalt be, FUT. futurum (-am, -urn) esse 3- , estB, he shall be. (fore), to be about to be. PL.— I. , PARTICIPLE. 2. este, be ye, est5te, you shall be, 3- , suntS, they shall be. PUT. futurus, -a, -um, about to be. 68 THE VERB. NOTES.— 1. Early forms are : (a) In the Pres. Ind. es for es ; regularly in PLAUTUS and TERENCE, but the quantity of the vowel is disputed. (6) In the Pres. Subjv. siem, sie"s, siet, sient ; regular in inscriptions until the first century B. C. and common hi early poets chiefly for metrical reasons ; side by side with this occur fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant (also LUCK, iv., 637, VERG. x., 108, LIT. xxv., 12, 6), which are taken up again by very late poete. Sit is also common. (c) In the Impf . Subjv. the forms forem, fores, foret, forent were probably in very early times equivalent to futurus essem, etc. ; and occasionally this force seems to be still present in the later period, especially in SALLUST ; usually, however, they are equivalent to essem, essSs, esset, essent ; in the Inf. fore always remained the equivalent of fatunim esse. (d) In all the Perfect forms the original length was fa-, which is still found occa- sionally in early Latin. («) Early and principally legal are the rare forms escit, escet, esit, for erit ; -essint for erunt. 2. The Pres. Part, ie found only in the compounds ; ab-sSns, absent, and prae- s5ns, present. 117. COMPOUNDS OF sum, / am. ab-sum, J am away, absent. Pf . ob-sum, / am against, I hurt. Pf . (abful) aful. obfui or offal, ad-sum, I am present. Pf. afful. pos-sum, I am able. dS-sum, / am wanting. prae-sum, / am over, I superintend. In-sum, lam in. pro-sum, I am for, I profit. inter-sum, / am between. sub-sum, / am under. No Pf . super-sum, / am, or remain, over. These are all inflected like sum ; but prosum and possum require special treatment by reason of their composition. Prosum, I profit. 118. In the forms of prosum, prod- is used before vowels. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. pr5-sum, prod-es, prod-est, pr5-sim, pro-sumus, prod-estis, pro-sunt, IMPERFECT. prSd-eram, prod-essem, FUTURE. prod-er5, PERFECT. prO-fuI, pr5-fuerim, PLUPERFECT. pr5-fueram, pr5-fuissem. Fur. PERF. pr6-fuer5, INFmnTVE. PHES. prod-esse ; FUT. pr5-futurum esse (-fore) ; PERF. pro-fuisse. Possum, / am able, I can. 119. Possum is compounded of pot (potis, pote) and sum ; t becomes s before s ; in the perfect forms, f (pot-fui) is lost. THE VERB. 69 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. SG. — i. pos-sum, I am able, can, pos-sim, I be able. 2. pot-es, pos-sls, 3. pot-est. pos-sit. PL. — i. pos-sumus, pos-simus, 2. pot-estis, pos-sitis, 3. pos-sunt. pos-sint. IMPERFECT. So. — i. pot-eram, I was able, could, pos-sem, I were, might be, able. 2. pot-eras, pos-sSs, 3. pot-erat. pos-set. PL. — i. pot-eramus, pos-semus, 2. pot-eratis, pos-s5tis, 3. pot-erant. pos-sent. FUTURE. SG. — i. pot-er5, 1 shall be able. 2. pot-eris, 3. pot-erit. PL. — i. pot-erimus, 2. pot-eritis, 3. pot-erunt. PERFECT. SG. — i. pot-m, I have been able, pot-uerim, / have, may have, been able. 2. pot-uistl, pot-ueris, 3. pot-uit. pot-uerit. PL. — i. pot-uimus, pot-uerlmus, 2. pot-uistis, pot-uerltis, 3. pot-u5mnt. pot-uerint. PLUPERFECT . SG. — i. pot-ueram, / had been able. pot-uissem, / had, might have, been able. 2. pot-ueras, pot-uiss5s, 3. pot-uerat. pot-uisset. PL. — i. pot-ueramus, pot-uissgnras, 2. pot-ueratis, pot-uiss6tis, 3. pot-uerant. pot-uissent. REGULAR VERBS. : Yc IBRASVj] FUTURE PERFECT. \y- V So. — i. pot-uer8, 1 shall have been PL. — i. pot-uerlmua, \? 2. pot-uerls, [able, 2. pot-ueritis, ^**J^*^] 3. pot-uerit. 3- pot-uerint. INFINITIVE. PRES., posse, to be able. PERP., potuisse, to have been able. NOTES.— 1. In the early Latin the fusion of the two parts of the compound has not fully taken place ; we accordingly find not unfrequently : potis sum, potis es, potis est, potis sunt ; potis siem, potis sis, potis sit, potis sint ; potis erat ; pote fuisset ; and sometimes (even in classical and Augustan poete) potis and pote alone, the copula being omitted. Partial fusion is seen in Inf. pot-esse, potisse ; Subjv. poti-sit (inscr.), poti-sset. 2. Occasional passive forms (followed by a passive infinitive) are found in early Latin (not in PLAUT. or TER.) and LUCRETIUS : potestur, possStur, possitur, poter- atur . Poterint for poterunt is doubtful. REGULAR VERBS. SYSTEMS OF CONJUGATION. 120. i. There are two Systems of Conjugation, the The- matic and the Non-thematic (132). The Non-thematic is confined to a small class. The Thematic System comprises four Conjugations, distinguished by the vowel characteristics of the present stem, a, 6, 8, i, which may be found by drop- ping -re from the Present Infinitive Active. The consonant preceding the short vowel stem-characteristic is called the consonant stem-characteristic. 2. From the Present stem, as seen in the Present Indica- tive and Present Infinitive active ; from the Perfect stem, as seen in the Perfect Indicative active ; and from the Supine stem, can be derived all the forms of the verb. These tenses are accordingly called the Principal Parts; and in the regular verbs appear in the four conjugations as follows : PRES. IND. PRES. INF. PERF. IND. SUPINE. I. am-o, ama-re, ama-vi, ama-ttun, to love. II. dSle-5, dele-re, deis-vi, dels- turn, to blot out. mone-o, mone-re, mon-ui, mon-i-tum, to remind. III. em-5, erne-re, e"m-i, em(p)-tum, to buy. statu-o, statue-re, statu-I, statu-tum, to settle. scrlb-o, scribe-re, scrip-si, scrip-turn, to write. capi-o. cape-re, cgp-I, cap-turn, to take. IV. audi-5, audl-re, audl-vl, audl-tum, to hear. REGULAR VERBS. Jl Rules for forming the Tenses. 121. r- The Present System. From the Present stem as obtained by dropping -re of the Pres. Inf. Active, form a. Pres. Subjv. by changing final a to e, 6 to ea, e to a (or -ia), i to ia, and adding -m for active, -r for passive ; Pres. Impv. Passive by adding -re; Fut. Impv. by adding -to for Active and -tor for the Passive ; Pres. Part, by adding -ns and lengthening preceding vowel ; Gerund by adding -ndl after shortening a and S, changing I to ie, and in a few verbs e to ie. Pres. Impv. Active is the same as the stem ; Pres. Indie. Passive may be formed from Pres. Indie. Act. by adding -r (after shortening 5). b. Impf. Indie, by adding -bam for active and -bar for passive to the stem in the first and second conjugations ; to the lengthened stem in the third and fourth (e to S or is, I to is) ; Impf. Subjv. by adding the endings -rem and -rer, or by adding -m and -r respectively to the Pres. Inf. Active. c. Future, by adding -bo and -bor to the stem in the first and second conjugations ; -m and -r in the third and in the fourth (e being changed to a (ia) ; I, to ia). 2. The Perfect System. From the Perfect stem as obtained by drop- ping final I of the Perfect, form a. Perf. /Subjv. Active by adding -erim ; Perf. Inf. Active by adding -isse. b. Plupf. Indie. Active by adding -eram ; Plup. Subjv. Active by adding -issem. c. Fut. Perf. Active by adding -er5. 3. The Supine System. From the Supine stem as obtained by drop- ping final -m of the Supine, form a. Perf. Part. Passive by adding -s. b. Fut. Part. Active by adding -rus (preceding u being lengthened tou). c. The Compound Tenses in the Passive and the Periphrastic forms by combining these Participles with forms of ease, to be. REMARK. — JSuphonic changes in the consonant stem-characteristic. Characteristic b before s and t becomes p ; g and qu before t become c ; c, g, qu, with s, become x ; t and d before s are assimilated, and then sometimes dropped. See further, 9. scrlb-o, scrip-si, scrip-turn ; lego, lec-tum ; coqu-o, coc-tum ; dic-o, clixi (die-si) ; inng-o, iunx-i (iung-sl) ; coqu-o, coxi (coqu-sl) ; ed-o, e-sum (ed- sum) ; ced-o, ces-si (cSd-si) ; mitt-6, mi-si (mit-sl), mis-sum (mit-sum). EEGULAK VEEBS. 122. First Conjugation. CONJUGATION OF amare, to lorn. PRIN. PARTS : am-o, ama-re, ama-vl, ama-tum. ACTIVE. PRESENT. IMPERFECT. INDICATIVE. Am loving, do love, love. SG. — i. am-5, 2. ama-s, 3. ama-t, PL. — i. amS-mus, 2. ama-tis, 3. ama-nt, Was loving, loved. SG. — i. ama-ba-m, 2. ama-ba-s, 3. ama-ba-t, PL. — i. ama-ba-nuis, 2. ainfi-ba-tis, 3. ama-ba-nt, PTITUBE. Shall be loving, shall love. So. — i. ama-b-5, 2. ama-bi-s, 3. amS-bi-t, PL. — i. aina-bi-mus, 2. ama-bi-tis, 3. ama-bu-nt. SUBJUNCTIVE. Be loving, may love. ame-m, amC-s. anic-t. ame-mos, ame-tis, ame-nt. Were loving, might love. ama-re-m, ama-rg-s, ama-re-t. ama-rg-mus, ama-rS-tis, ama-re-nt. PERFECT. Have loved, did love. SG. — i. ama-v-I, 2. ama-v-isti, 3. ama-v-it, PL. — i. ama-v-imus, 2. ania-v-istis, 3. ama-v-Srunt (-6re), Have, may have, loved, amS-v-eri-m, amu-v-erl-s, ama-v-eri-t. ama-v-erl-mus, ama-v-erf-tis, ama-v-eri-nt. REGULAR VERBS. First Conjugation. ACTIVE. INDICATIVE. PLUPERFECT. Had loved. SG. — i. ama-v-era-m, 2. amS-v-era-s, 3. ama-v-era-t, PL. — i. ama-v-era-mus, 2. amS-v-era-tis, 3. ama-v-era-nt, FUTURE PERFECT. Shall have loved. SG. — i. ama-v-er-5, 2. ama-v-erl-s, 3. ama-v-eri-t. PL. — i. ama-v-erl-mus, 2. ama-v-eri-tis, 3. ama-v-eri-nt. IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. SG.— i. , , 2, ama, love thou, ama-t5, 3. . amS-tO, PL.— i. , SUBJUNCTIVE. Had, might have, loved. amS-v-isse-m, aina-v-isse-s, ama-v-isse-t. ama-v-issS-mus, ama-v-issS-tis, ama-v-isse-nt. FUTTTRE. thou shalt love, he shall love. 2. ama-te, love ye, ama-t5te, ye shall love. 3. , ama-ntO, they shall love. ESI PUNITIVE. PRES. ama-re, to love. PERF. amS-v-isse, to have loved. FUT. amfi-tur-um, -am, -um esse, to be about to love. GERUND. SUPINE. N. [ama-re], loving. G. ama-nd-i, of loving. D. ama-nd-8, to loving. Ac. [ama-re], Ac. ama-tum, to love. (ad) ama-nd-um, loving, to love. Ab. ama-nd-6, by loving. Ab. ama-tii, to love, in the loving. PARTICIPLES. PRESENT. N. ama-n-s (G. ama-nt-is), loving. FUTURE. amS-tur-us, -a, -urn, being about to love. 74 REGULAK VERBS. First Conjugation. PASSIVE. INDICATIVE. Am loved. SG. — i. amo-r, 2. ama-ris (-re), 3. ama-tur, PL. — I. aUKl-mur, 2. ama-minl, 3. ama-ntur, PRESENT. IMPERFECT. Was loved. So. — i. ama-ba-r, 2. {iinil-ba-ris (-re), 3. amS-ba-tur, PL. — i. ama-ba-mur, 2. ama-ba-mini, 3. anuT-ba-ntur, Shall be loved. SG. — i. ama-bo-r, 2. ama-be-ris (-re), 3. amS-bi-tur. PL. — i. ama-bi-mur, 2. ama-bi-minl, 3. amS-bu-ntur. FUTURE. PERFECT. SUBJUNCTIVE. Be, may be, loved. iuno-r, am5-ris (-re), am5-tur. amC-mur, ame-minl, ame-ntur. Were, might be, loved. ama-re-r, amS-rg-ris (-re), ama-rg-tur. amu-re-mur, ama-r6-minl, ama-re-ntur, Have been loved, was loved. SG. — i. ama-t-us, -a, -um sum, 2. es, 3- est, PL. — i. amS-t-I, -ae, -a sumus, 2. estis, 3. sunk Have, may have, been loved. ama-t-us, -a, -um sim, sis, sit, ama-t-I, -ae, -a simus, sltis, sint. REGULAR VERBS. 75 First Conjugation. PASSIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PLUPERFECT. Had been loved. Had, might have, been loved. So. — i. Jimu-t-us, -a, -am eram, ama-t-us, -a, -am essem, 2. eras, esses, 3. erat, esset, PL. — i. amS-t-I, -ae, -a eramus, amS-t-I, -ae, -a essemas, 2. eratis, essetis, 3. erant. esseiit. FUTURE PERFECT. Shall have been loved. So. — i. amS-t-as, -a, -um erO, 2. eris, 3. erit. PL. — i. ama-t-I, -ae, -a erimas, 2. erit is, 3. erant. IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. FUTURE. Sa.— i. , , 2. ama-re, be thou loved. ama-tor, thou shall be loved, 3. , ama-tor, he shall be loved. PL.— i. , , 2. araa-mini, be ye loved. , 3. . ama-ntor, they shall be loved. INFINITIVE. PRES. amS-rl, to be loved. PERF. ama-t-um, -am, -am ease, to have been loved. FUT. ama-tom Irl, to be about to be loved. FUT. PF. ama-t-om, -am, -am fore. PARTICIPLE. GERUNDIVE. PERT, ama-t-as, -a, -am, loved. ama-nd-us, -a, -am, (one) to be loved. 76 REGULAR VERBS. 123. Second Conjugation. CONJUGATION OF delere, to destroy (Not out). PRIN. PARTS : dele-6, dele-re, dele-vl, dele-turn. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. So. — dele-ba-m, dele-ba-s, d5le-ba-t, PL. — dele-ba-mus, dele-ba-tis, dele-ba-nt. So.— dele-M, dele-bi-8, dele-bi-t, PL.— dele-bi-mus, d5le-bi-tis, dele-bu-nt. SUBJV. ESTDIC. SUBJV PKKSENT. So.— dele-5, dele-s, dele-t, delea-m, delea-s, delea-t, d6le-o-r, dele-ris (-re), dele-tur, delea-r, delea-ris (-re), delea-tur, PL, — dele-mas, dele-tis, dele-nt. deleS-mus, dr-lrfi-tis, delea-nt. dele-xnur, dele-mini, dele-ntur. dele-S-mor, delc-a-mini, dele-a-ntor. dele-re-m, dele-re-s, dele-re-t, del6-r6-mus, del5-r6-tis, d6le-re-nt. IMPERFECT. dele-ba-r, dele-ba-ris (-re), dele-ba-tur, dele-ba-mur, dele-ba-minl, del5-ba-ntur, dele-re-r, dele-r6-ris (-re), dele-re-tur, dele-rS-mur, dele-r6-mini, dele-re-ntur. FUTUBE. dele-bo-r, dele-be-ris (re), dele-bi-tur, dele-bi-mur, dele-bi-mini, dele-bu-ntur. PERFECT. So.— dele-v-I, dele-v-istl, dele-v-it, dele-v-eri-m, dele-v-erl-s, dele-v-eri-t, dele-t-us sum, es, ert, PL. — dele-v-imus, dele-v-istis, dele-v-eri-mus, dele-v-eri-tis, delC-t-l sumus, estis, dele-t-ns sim, dele-t-i dele-v-erunt (-ere), dele-v-eri-nt, sunt, sit. slmus, sitis, sint. REGULAR VERBS. 77 Second Conjugation. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. STJBJV. PLUPERFECT. SG. — dele-v-era-m, dele-v-isse-m, dele-t-us eram, dele-t-us essem, dele-v-era-s, dele-v-issS-s, eras, essgs, dele-v-era-t, dele-v-isse-t. erat, esset. PL. — dele-v-era-mus, dele-v-isse"-mus, dele-t-I eramus, dele-t-I essemus, dele-v-era-tis, dele-v-isse"-tis, dele-v-era-nt, dele-v-isse-nt. eratis, erant, essgtis, esseut. So. — dele-v-er-5, dele-v-er!-s, dele-v-eri-t, PL. — dele-v-erl-mus, dele-v-er!-tis, dele-v-eri-nt, PRESENT. FUTURE PERFECT. dele-t-us er5, eris, erit. dele-t-i erimus, eritis, erunt. IMPERATIVE. FUTURE. PRESENT. FUTURK. So. PL. dele, dele-te, d5le-t5, dele-t5, dele-tote, d5le-nto. dele-re, d&le-mini, d5l6-tor, dele-tor. dele-ntor. PBES. dele-re. PERF. dele-v-isse. INFINITIVE. PRES. dele-rl. PERF. dele-t-um, -am, -um esse. FUT. dele-tur-um, -am, -um esse. GERUND. N. [dele-re], G. dele-nd-I. D. dele-nd-5. Ac. [dele-re] (ad) dele-nd-um. Ab. dele-nd-o. SUPINE. Ac. dele-turn. Ab. dele-tu. PUT. dele-turn irl. FUT. PF. dele-t-um, -am, -um fore. PARTICIPLES. PRES. N. del5-n-s ; G. dele-nt-is. PUT. dele-tur-us, -a, -um. PEHF. dele-t-us, -a, -um. GERUNDIVE, dele-nd-us, -a, -uia. 78 REGULAR VERBS. 124. Like delere, to destroy, are conjugated only, nere, to spin, flere, to weep, and the compounds of -plere, fill, and -olere grow (the latter with Supine in -itum); also ciere, to stir up. See 13 7 (b). All other verbs of the Second Conjugation retain the character- istic e in the Present System, but drop it in the Perfect System, changing vi to ui, and weaken it to i in the Supine System. Second Conjugation. CONJUGATION OF monere, to remind. PRIN. PARTS : mone-o, mon5-re, mon-ui, mom-turn. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SUBJV. PRESENT. So. — mone-5, monea-m, mone-o-r, monea-r, mone-s, monea-s, mone-ris (-re), monea-ris (-re), mone-t, monea-t, mone-tur, raonea-tur, PL. — mone-mus, monea-mns, mone-mur, mone-a-mur, mon5-tis, monea-tis, mone-minl, mone-a-minl, mone-nt. monea-nt. mone-ntur. mone-a-ntur. IMPERFECT. SG . — mon5-ba-m, mone-re-m, mon6-ba-r, mone-re-r, mone-ba-s, mone-r6-s, mone-ba-ris (-re), mone-rS-ris (-re), mone-ba-t, mone-re-t, mone-ba-tur, moiie-rS-tur, PL. — mone-ba-mus, mone-r6-mus, mone-ba-mur, mone-r5-nmr, mone-ba-tis, mone-r8-tis, mone-ba-minl, mone-rS-minl, mone-ba-nt. mone-re-nt. mone-ba-ntur. mone-re-ntur. FUTURE. So. — mon5-b-5, mone-bo-r, mone-bi-s, mone-be-ris (-re), mone-bi-t, mone-bi-tur, PL. i — mone-bi-mus, mone-bi-mur, mone-bi-tis, mone-bi-minl, mone-bu-nt. mon5-bu-ntur. PERFECT. Se. — mon-u-I, mon-u-eri-m, moni-t-us sum, moni-t-us sim, mon-u-istl, mon-u-erl-s, es, sis, mon-u-it, mon-u-eri-t, est, sit, PL. — LUOI i -u-imus , mon-u-er!-mus, moni-t-I sumus, moni-t-I slum mon-u-istis, mon-u-erl-tis, estis, sitis, mon-u-erunt (-6re). mon-u-eri-nt. sunt. sint. REGULAR VERBS. 79 Second Conjugation. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SUBJV. PLUPERFECT. go. — mon-u-era-m, mon-u-isse-m, raoni-t-us eram. moni-t-us essem, mon-u-era-s, mon-u-isse"-s, eras, esses, mon-u-era-t, mon-u-isse-t. erat, esset, PL.— •mon-u-era-mus, mon-u-issg-mus, moni-t-I eramus, moni-t-I essSmus, mon-u-era-tis, mon-u-issB-tis, eratis, essStis, mon-u-era-nt. mon-u-isse-nt. erant. essent. SG.— PL.— SG. PL. mon-u-er-3, mon-u-erl-s, mon-u-eri-t, mon-u-erl-mus, mon-u-erl-tis, mon-u-eri-nt. PRESENT. mon6, FUTURE. monB-t5, mone-t5, FUTURE PERFECT. moni-t-us er6, ens, erit, moni-t-I erimus, eritis, erunt. IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. mone-re, FUTURE. mone-tor, mone-tor, mone-te, mone-t5te, mone-nt5. mone-minl, mone-ntor. PRES. PERP. FUT. N. G. D. Ac. Ab. INFINITIVE. mon5-re. PRES. mone-rL mon-u-isse. PERF. moni-t-um, -am, -tun esse. moni-tur-um, -am, um ease. FUT. moni-t-um Irl. FUT. PP. moni-t-um, -am, -um fore. GERUND. SUPINE. [mon5-re]. mone-nd-I. mone-nd-5. [mone-re] Ac. moni-tum. (ad) mone-nd-um. mone-nd-5. Ab. moni-tu. PARTICIPLES. PRES. N. mon5-n-s ; G. mone-nt-is. FUT. moui-tur-us, -a, -um. moni-t-us, -a, -um. GERUNDIVE, mone-nd-us, -a, -um, 8o REGULAR VERBS. 125. Third Conjugation. CONJUGATION OF emere, to buy. PRIN. PARTS : em-o, erne-re, 6m-I, 6m(p)-tum. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. ENDIC. SG. — ema-m, emB-s, eme-t, PL. — eme-mus, em5-tis, eme-nto SUBJV. INDIC. SUBJV. PRESENT. So -"-em-o, ema-m, em-o-r, ema-r, emi-s, ema-s, eme-ris (-re), ema-ris (-re), emi-t, rma-t, emi-tur, ema-tur, PL. — emi-mus, ema-mus, emi-mnr, ema-mur, emi-tis, ema-tis, emi-minl. emS-minl, emu-nt. ema-nt. emu-ntur. ema-ntur. IMPERPBCT. So. — erne-ba-m, eme-re-m. em5-ba-r, eme-re-r, em5-ba-s, eme-rS-s, emB-ba-ris (-re,) eme-re-ris (-re), eme-ba-t, eme-re-t, eme-ba-tur, eme-r&-tur. PL. — em5-ba-mus, eme-r6-mus, eme-ba-mur, eme-rfr-mur, eme-ba-tis, eme-re-tis, em6-ba-ininl, eme-rfi-minl, em6-ba-nt. eme-re-nt. em6-ba-ntur. eme-re-ntur, FUTUBE. ema-r, eme-ris (-re), em6-tur, em6-mttr, em5-minl, eme-ntur. PERFECT. SG. — em-I, em-eri-m, emp-t-us stun. emp-t-us aim, Bm-isti, 5m-eri-s, es, sis, em-it, em-eri-t, est, sit, PL. — em-imns, em-erl-muB, emp-t-I sumus. emp-t-I simus, em-istis, em-erl-tis, estis. sltis. em-erunt (-6re). Sm-eri-nt. sont. sint. REGULAR VERBS. 81 INDIC. Third Conjugation. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. SUBJV. INDIC. PLUPERFECT. SUBJV. G. — 5m-era-m, 5m-era-s, 5m-era-t, em-isse-m, em-iss6-s, 5m-isse-t, emp-t-us eram, 5mp-t-us essem, eras, . esses, erat, esset, 'L.— 5m-era-mus, em-era-tis, em-era-nt. riu-isse-mus, emp-t-I eramus, 5mp-t-I essgmus, Cm-isse-tis. eratis, essetis. cin-isse-nt. erant. essent. FUTURE PERFECT. G. — 5m-er-5, 5m-eris, Em-eri-t, 5mp-t-us er5, eris, erit, 'L. — em-eri-mus, 5m-eri-tis, 5m-eri-nt. emp-t-I erimus, eritis, emnt. IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. G. erne, >T FUTURE. emi-t5, emi-t5, emi-t5te, ATrm-ntn PRESENT. FUTURE. erne-re, emi-tor, emi-torj emi-minl. Amii.ni-Ai. emi-te. RES. erae-re. ERF. 6m-isse. INFINITIVE. PRES. era-I. PERF. 5mp-t-um, -am, -um esse. UT. emp-tirr-um, -am, -um esse. FUT. 5m p -turn iri. FUT.PF. Emp-t-um, -am, -um fore. GERUND. SUPINE. PARTICIPLES. f. [eme-re]. PRES. N. em5-n-s ; G. eme-nt-is. k em-e-nd-I. FUT. 6mp-tur-us, -a, -um. >. em-e-nd-5. PERF. Emp-t-us, -a, -um. LC. [em-e-re] Ac. cmp-turn. (ad) em-e-ndum, GERUNDIVE. ib. em-e-nd-6. Ab. emp-tu. em-e-nd-us, -a, -um. 6 82 REGULAR VERBS. 126. Many verbs of the third conjugation with stem in ie (Prei Indie, in io) weaken this ie to e before -re, and to i before m, and t in all tenses of the Present System except the Futur< Otherwise they follow the inflection of eme-re. These verbs are capio, cupio, facio, fodio, fagio, iacio, pan quatio, rapid, sapio, and their compounds ; also compounds < -licio, -spicio, and the deponents gradior and its compound; morior and its compounds, patior and its compounds. SYNOPSIS OF PRESENT SYSTEM OF cape-re, to take. PEIN. PARTS : capi-o, cape-re, ce>l, cap-turn. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. 8UBJV. FNDIC. SUBJV. PRESENT. So. — capi-8, capi-s, capi-t, capia-m, capia-s, capia-t, capi-o-r, cape-ris (-re), capi-tur, capia-r, capia-ris (-re), capiS-tur, PL. — eapi-mus, capi-tis, capiu-nt. capia-mus, capia-tis, capia-nt. capi-mur, capi-minl, capiu-ntur. capia-mur, capia-minl, capia-ntur. IMPERFECT. So. — capie-ba-m, etc. So. — capia-m, capi5-s, etc. PBES. cap-e-re-m, etc. capi-6-ba-r, etc. eape-re-r, etc. FUTUBK. capi-te. PBES. cape-re. PARTICIPLE. PBES. capie-n-s. capia-r, capiG-ris (-re), etc. IMPERATIVE. Pur. PRES. cap-i-t5, cape-re, cap-i-t5, capi-t5te, capi-minl. capiu-nt9. Fur. capi-tor, capi-tor, capiu-ntor. GERUND. G. capie-nd-i. cap-I. GERUNDIVE. capie-nd-us, -a, -tun. REGULAR VERBS. 127. Fourth Conjugation. CONJUGATION OF audire, to hear. PRIN. PARTS : audi-o, aucll-re, audl-vl, audl-tura. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SttBJV. PRESENT. So. — audi-6, audi-s, audi-t, audia-m, audia-s, audia-t, audi-o-r, audi-ris (re), audl-tur, audia-r, audia-ris (-re), audia-tur, PL. — audi-mus, audi-tis, audiu-nt. audiu-raus, audifi-tis, audia-nt. audl-mur, audi-minl, audi-u-ntur. audia-mur, audia-minl, audia-ntur. So. — audi5-ba-m, audi5-ba-s, audie-ba-t, audl-re-m, audl-rS-s, audi-re-t, PL.- — audie-ba-mus, audie-ba-tis, audie-ba-nt. audi-r6-mus, audi-r6-tis, audi-re-nt. IMPERFECT. audie-ba-r, audl-re-r, audie-ba-ris (re), audl-rg-ris (-re), audie-ba-tur, audl-r5-tur, audie-ba-mur, audi-rS-mur, audi5-ba-mini, audl-rS-minl, audie-ba-ntor. audl-re-ntur. FUTURE. SG. — audia-m, audi5-s, audie-t, PL. — audie-mus, audie-tis, audie-nt. audia-r, audie-ris (-re), audi5-tur, audie-mur, audir-mini, audie-ntur. PERFECT. So. — audi-v-I, audl-v-eri-m, audl-t-us sum, audl-t-us sim, audi-v-istl, audl-v-erl-s, es, sis, audi-v-it, audl-v-eri-t, est, sit, PL. — audl-v-imus, audl-v-erl-nras, audl-t-I sumus, audi-t-I slmuS; audi-v-istis, audl-v-eri-tis, estis, sitis, audl-v-6runt (-Sre). audl-v-eri-nt. sunt. sint. 84 REGULAR VERBS. Fourth Conjugation. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. INDIC. SUBJV. INDIC. SUBJV. PLUPERFECT. SG. — audi-v-era-m, audl-v-isse-m, audi-t-us eram, audl-tu-s essem, audi-v-era-s, audl-v-issS-s, eras, esses, audl-v-era-t, audl-v-isse-t, erat, esset, PL. — audl-v-er a-mus, audl-v-isse-mus, audl-t-I eramus, audl-t-I essemua audl-v-era-tis, audi-v-issS-tis, eratis, essetis, audl-v-era-nt. audi-v-isse-nt. erant, essent. FUTURE PEBPECT. SG. — audI-v-er-5, audl-t-ns ero, audl-v-erl-s, eris, audl-v-eri-t, erit, PL. — audi-v-eri-mus, audi-t-I erimus, audi-v-eri-tis, eritis, audl-v-eri-nt. erunt. IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. FUTUKE. PRESENT. FUTURE. So. audl, audi-t5, audl-re, audl-tor, audi-t5, audi-tor, PL. audi-te. ;tudl-tote, audl-minl. — - audiu-nto. audiu-ntor. PRES. audl-re. PERF. audl-v-isse. Fur. audi-tur-um, -am, -um GERUND. N. [audi-re]. G. audie-nd-I. D. audie-nd-5. Ac. [audl-re] (ad) audie-nd-nm. Ab. audie-nd-6. INFINITIVE. PRES. audl-rl. PERF. audl-t-um, -am, um esse. ise. FUT. audi-ttim iri. FUT.PF. audl-t-um, -am, -um fore. SUPINE. PARTICIPLES. PRES. N. audi5-n-s, G. audie-nt-is FUT. audi-tur-us, -a, -um. PERF. audl-t-us, -a, -um. Ac. audl-tum. Ab. audl-tu. GERUNDIVE, audie-nd-us, -a, -um. DEPONENT VERBS. DEPONENT VERBS. 128. Deponent verbs have the passive form, but are active in meaning. They have also the Present and Future Active Participles, and the Future Active Infinitive. Thus a depo- nent verb alone can have a Present, Future, and Perfect Participle, all with active meaning. The Gerundive, how- ever, is passive in meaning as well as in form. The conjugation differs in no particular from that of the regular conjugation. i. First Conjugation. CONJUGATION OF hortart, to exhort. PRIN. PARTS: hort-or, horta-rl, horta-tus sum. INDICATIVE. Exhort, So. — hort-o-r, horta-ris (-re), horta-tur, PL. — hort&-mur, horta-minl, horta-ntur. Was exhorting. SG. — horta-ba-r, horta-bS-ris (-re), horta-ba-tur, PL. — horta-ba-mur, horta-ba-minl, horta-ba-ntur. Shall exhort. SG. — horta-bo-r, horta-be-ris (-re), horta-bi-tur, PL. — horta-bi-mur, horta-bi-minl, horta-bu-ntur. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. Be exhorting, may exhort. horte-r, horte-ris (-re), hort5-tur, hort5-mur, horte-minl, horte-ntur. IMPERFECT. Were exhorting, might exhort. horta-re-r, horta-rS-ris (-re), horta-r6-tur, horta-rS-mur, horta-re-minl, horta-re-ntur. FUTURE. 86 DEPONENT VERBS. PERFECT. Have exhorted, exhorted. Have, may have, exhorted. SG. — horta-t-us, -a, -um sum, horta-t-us, -a, -um sim, es, sis, est, sit, PL. — horta-t-I, -ae, -a sumus, horta-t-I, -ae, -a slmus, estis, sltis, sunt. sint. PLUPERFECT. Had exhorted. Had, might have, exhorted. SG. — horta-t-us, -a, -um eram, horta-t-us, -a, -um essem, er&s, esses, erat, esset, PL. — horta-t-I, -ae, -a eramus, horta-t-I, -ae, -a essemus, eratis, essetis, erant. essent. FUTURE PERFECT. Shall have exhorted. SG. — horta-t-us, -a, -um er5, eris, erit, PL. — horta-t-I, -ae, -a erimus, eritis, erunt. IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. FUTURE. SG. horta-re, exhort thou. horta-tor, thou shall exhort. horta-tor, he shall exhort. PL. horta-minl, exhort ye. horta-ntor, they shall exhort. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. PRES. horta-rl, to exhort. PRES. horta-n-s, exhorting. PUT. horta-tur-um, am, -um esse, FUT. horta-tur-us, -a, um, about to be about to exhort. to exhort. PERF. horta-t-um, -am, -um esse, to PEHF. hortS-t-us, -a, -um, having have exhorted. exhorted. F. P. horta-t-um, -am, -um fore. GERUNDIVE. SUPINE. horta-nd-us, -a, -um, [one] to be Ac. horta-tum, to exhort, for ex- exhorted. horting. GERUND. Ab. horta-tu, to exhort, in the ex- G. horta-nd-I, of exhorting. horting. DEPONENT VERBS. 2. Second, Third, Fourth Conjugations. SYNOPSIS OF vererl, to fear; loqui, to speak; mentiri, to lie. PRIN. PARTS : vere-or, ver6-rl, veri-tus sum; loqu-or, loqu-i, locu-tua sum; nieuti-or, menti-ri, mentl-tus sum. PEES. IMPERP. PUT. PERF. PLUPP. FUT. PP. PEES. INDICATIVE. II. in. IV. vere-o-r, loqu-o-r, menti-o-r, vere-ris (-re), etc., loque-ris (-re), etc., mentl-ris (-re), etc.t ver5-ba-r, Ioqu5-ba-r, menti5-ba-r, vere-bo-r, loqua-r. mentia-r, veri-t-us sum, locu-t-us sum, menti-t-us sum, veri-t-us eram, locu-t-us eram, menti-t-us eram, veri-t-us er5. locu-t-us ero. menti-t-us er5. SUBJUNCTIVE. verea-r, loqua-r, mentia-r, verea-ris (-re), etc., loqua-ris (-re), etc., mentia-ris(-re),efc., menti-re-r, menti-t-us sim, menti-t-us essem. mentl-re, inentl-tor. mentl-rf, menti-tur-um esse, menti-t-um esse, menti-t-um fore. mentie-n-s, menti-tur-us, menti-t-us. mentie-nd-1, mentie-nd-us, mentl-tum, mentl-tu. IMPEBP. PEKP. PLUPP. verG-re-r, veri-t-us sim, veri-t-us essem. loque-re-r, locu-t-us sim, locu-t-us essem. IMPERATIVE. PBES. FUT. vere-re, vere-tor. loque-re, loqui-tor. INFINITIVE. PRES. PUT. PERF. FUT. PP. vere-ri, veri-tur-um esse, veri-t-um esse, veri-t-um fore. loqu-I, locu-tur-um esse, locu-t-um esse, locu-t-um fore. PARTICIPLES. PBES. FUT. PERF vere-n-s, veri-tur-us, veri-t-us. loque-n-s, locu-tur-us, locu-t-us. GERUND. vere-nd-I, etc., GERUNDIVE, vere-nd-us, SUPINE. veri-tum, veri-tu. loque-nd-i, loque-nd-us, locu-tum, locu-tu. 88 PEEIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION. Periphrastic Conjugation. 129. The Periphrastic Conjugation arises from the com- bination of the Future Participle active and the Gerundive with forms of the verb sum. ACTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PBES. amaturus (-a, -um) sum, amaturus (-a, -urn) sim, Am about to love. Be about to love. IMPF. amaturus eram, amaturus essem, Was about to love. Were about to love. PUT. amaturus ero, Shall be about to love. PEKF. amaturus fui, amaturus fuerim, Save been, was, about to love. Have, may have, been about to love. FLUFF. amaturus fueram, amaturus fuissem, Jlad been about to love. Had, might have, been about to love. FUT. PEKF. amaturus fuero, Shall have been about to love. INFINITIVE. PBES. amatur-um (-am, -um) esse, To be about to love. PERT. amatur-um fuisse, To have been about to love. PASSIVE. PBES. amandus (-a, -um) sum, amandus (-a, -um) sim, Have to be loved. Have to be loved. IMPF. amandus eram, amandus essem, forem, Had to be loved. Had to be loved. FUT. amandus ero, Shall have to be loved. PEBF. amandus fui, amandus fuerim, Have had to be loved. Have had to be loved. PLTTPF. amandus fueram, amandus fuissem, Had had to be loved. Should have had to be loved. INFINITIVE. PBES. amandum (-am, -urn) esse, To have to be loved. PERI, amandum fuisse, To have had to be loved. NOTES ON THE CONJUGATIONS. 89 Notes on the Four Conjugations. 130. The Present System. 1. PRESENT INDICATIVE. — (a) In the third person Singular active, early Latin, and occasionally later poets, often retain the original length of vowel in the endings -at, -8t, and -It of the first, second, and fourth conjugations. Final -It in the third conjuga- tion is rare, and due, perhaps, to analogy or to metrical necessity. In the first person Plural the ending -mus is found a few times in poetry. In third person Plural an earlier ending, -onti, is found only in a Carmen Saliare, and is disputed. The ending •out is frequent in early Latin for -unt. (b) In the second Singular, passive, in all tenses of the Present stem, the ending -re is much more common in early Latin than -ris, and is regular in Cic. except in the Pr. Indie., where he prefers -ris on account of confusion with Pr. Inf., admitting -re only in deponents, and then but rarely. In general, in the Pr. Indie, -re is rare in the first and second conjugations, more rare ii the third, and never found in the fourth, in prose authors. Post-Ciceronian prose writers, e. g., LIVT, TACITUS, prefer -ris, even in the other tenses of the Present stem. The poets use -ris or -re to suit the metre. 2. IMPERFECT INDICATIVE. — In the fourth conjugation, instead of -ig-, we find in early times -I-. This is common in early Latin (especially sclbam), in the poets to suit the metre, and occasionally in later prose. In the verb e5, and its compounds (but ambire varies), this form was regular always. 3. FUTURE INDICATIVE. — PLAUTUS shows sporadic cases of -It, as erlt, vSnlbit (v6neo). In the fourth conjugation -fl)5 for -iam is very common in early Latin (especially sdb6), and forms in -Ibo of the third conjugation are occasional. 4. PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE.— Final -at of the third person Singular active is occa- sional in early Latin and also in later poets. In early Latin the active endings -im, -Is, •it, -int are found in dare (and some compounds), which forms very often duim, duls, duit, duint. On similar forms from esse, see 116 ; from edere, see 172. 5. IMPERATIVE.— (a) Four verbs, dlcere, ducere, facere, ferre (171), form the Pr. Impv. active die, due, fac, fer. But in early Latin dice, duce , face are not uncommon. The compounds follow the usage of the simple verbs, except non-prepositional com- pounds of facio. Scire, to know, lacks the Pr. Impv. scl. (b) The original ending of the Fut. Impv. active -t5d is found in early inscriptions, but very rarely. (c) The Pr. Impv. passive (second and third Singular) ends occasionally in early Latin in -mino. 6. PRESENT INFINITIVE PASSIVE.— The early ending -rier (-ier) is very common in early Latin and occasionally in poetry at all periods. PLAUTUS shows about 140 such formations. In literary prose it does not appear till very late. 7. The PRESENT PARTICIPLE occurs sporadically in early Latin with the ending •5s, -5s, the n having been omitted owing to its weak sound ; see 12, R. i. 8. The older ending of the GERUND and GERUNDIVE in the third and fourth conju- gations was -undus ; and -endus was found only after u. In classical times -undus is frequent, especially in verbs of third and fourth conjugations. Later, -endus is the regular form. 131. The Perfect System. i. SYNCOPATED FORMS.— The Perfects in -avl, -evi, -Ivi, often drop the v before s or r, and contract the vowels throughout, except those in -Ivi, which admit the contraction only before s. The syncopated forms are found in all periods, and in the poets are used to suit the metre. 9<D NOTES ON THE CONJUGATIONS. PERFECT. SING. 1. 2. amavisti, amasti. delevisti, delesti. audivistl, audistl. 3. PLUB. 1. 2. amavistis, amastis. delevistis, delestis. audlvistis, audlstis. 3. amaverunt, amarunt. dSl6v6runt, delerunt. audiv6nmt, audierunt. SUBJY. amaverim, ainarim, deleverim, delerim, audlverim, audieriui, etc. etc. eic. PLUPERFECT. IN DIC-. amaveram, amaram, deleveram, deleram, audiveram, audieram, etc. etc. etc. SUBJV. amavissem, ainasseni, delevisseni, delessem, audivissem, audissem, etc. etc. etc. FUTURE PERFECT. ainavero, amaro, delevero, delero, audivero, audiero, etc. etc. etc. INFINITIVE PERFECT. amavisse, amasse. delevisse, delesse. audivisse, audisse. 2. In the first and third persons Sing, and in the first person PL of the Perfect, syncope occurs regularly only in Perfects in IvI, and no contraction ensues. It is most common in the Perfects of Ire (169) and petere. In other verbs this syncopation is post-Ciceronian, except in a few forms. So CICERO uses dormiit, erudiit, expediit, molliit, cupiit (also PLAUTUS) ; CAESAR, communiit, resciit, qaaesiit. Desinere forms desii and desiit, once each in early Latin (CICERO uses dSstiti and destitit instead), and then in post- Augustan Latin ; dgsiimus is cited once from CICERO. The unsyncopated forms are always common except those of Ire (169), which are very rare in classical prose, but occur more often in the poets for metrical reasons. NOTE.— The forms nSmus (ENN. = nSvimus), gnarramus (TER.,^l<i.,36s), flS- mus, mutamus, and narramus (PROP.), suSmus (LUCR.), in the Perfect, are sporadic and sometimes doubtful. 3. n6vl, I know, and mOvI, I have moved, are also contracted, in their compounds especially. SING.— 2. nSstl. PLUR.— 2. nostis. 3. ndrunt. SUBJV. n5rim, etc. PLUPF. nSram, etc. SUBJV. nossem, etc. INF. nosse. But the Put. Perf . n5ro is found only in compounds. Similar contractions are seen in movl, but not so often ; iflvl shows also a few cases of syncope in poetry. 4. (a) In the early Latin poets frequently and occasionally in later, syncope takes place in Perfects in -si. These drop the s and contract. A few cases are found hi CICERO, especially in the letters. Examples arc dlxtl (found also in Cic. and probably an earlier formation, and not by syncope for dlxistl) ; duxti, principally in compounds ; intellextKonceinCic.); scripstl ; mlstl (mlsistl) and several others ; also scrlpstis. (6) Akin to these are a number of forms in -s5 for Fut. Perfect ; -sim for Pf. Subjv. and more rarely -sem for Plupf . Subjv. These forms are most usual in the third conjugation, but are also not unfrequent in the other three ; thus, THE STEM. 91 • 1. Future Perfect : fax5 (facere) ; capsd (capere) and compounds ; iuss5(iubere ; VERG.) ; amasso (amare) ; servasso (servare) and compounds, together with some others. 2. Perfect Sulyunctive : faxim and compounds ; duxim ; ausim ( auclere, also used by Cic.) ; iussim ; cmpsim teniere) ; locassim ( locate) ; aegassim (negare). In the second and third persons Sing., where the Fut. Pf . Indie, and the Pf. Subjv. are identical, the forms are much more common. The plural forms are much less frequent. 3. Pluperfect Subjunctive : faxem ; pro-mlssem ; intel-lexSs ; re-cSsset and a few other forms ; Sr@psSm.US (HOB., S., i. 5, 79). These forms are rare. 4. Infinitive : dlxe ; dS-spexe ; ad-duxe, etc. ; intel-lexe ; de-traxe, etc. ; ad- vexe ; ad-misse, and a few others. Also the Future forms averuncassere, reconcili- assere, impetrassere, oppugaassere. The exact origin of these forms is still a matter of dispute, but the common view is that they are aoristic formations. 5. From the earliest times the third Plural of the Pf . Indie, active shows two end- ings, -Sront (later -Srunt) and -6re. The form in -Brant was always preferred, and in classical prose is the normal form. The form in -Sre seems to have been the popu- lar form, and is much liked by LIVY and later writers. TACITUS seems to have pre- ferred -grunt for the Pure Perfect, and -gre for the Historical Perfect. The poets scan, according to the exigencies of the metre, at all periods also grunt. 6. In regard to the other endings, we have to notice in early Latin -Is occasionally in the Pf . Subjv. and Fut. Pf. Indie, active ; Perfects in -il are always written with -iei- on inscriptions ; hi other Perfects the third person Singular in -Sit (older -St), or -It ; as dedet ; occasionally the first person ends in -el and the second in -istei. Peculiar forms are dedrot (dedro), (for dederunt), fBcSd (for fgcit), and a few others. THE STEM. 132. With the exception of the verbs sum, / am, edo, I eat, eo, I go, fero, / bear, void, I wish (perhaps do, I give), and their compounds, most of whose forms come directly from the root, all verbs in Latin form their stems from the root by the addition of a vowel or of a combination of a vowel with a consonant. This vowel is called the thematic vowel ; see 190. In the first, second, and fourth conjugations, and in some verbs of the third conjugation, the stem thus formed is found throughout the whole conjugation ; in other verbs the present stem shows different forms from the other stems. 1. THE PRESENT STEM. 133. I. The, Stem or Thematic class : To this class belong those verbs whose stems are formed by the addition of a thematic vowel (usually i, sometimes u) to the root, as in the third conjugation, or to a stem formed by the addition of a, 8, or i to the root, as in the first, sec- ond, and fourth conjugations. The stem thus formed is seen (with lengthened vowel sometimes) in all forms of the verb. To this class belong verbs of the first, second, and fourth conjugations, and in the 92 THE STEM. third (a) verbs formed from a strong root, i. e., verbs with 1, u, a, e, 6, ae, au ; and with e in the stem ; as dico (= deicS), duco (= douco), rado, cedo, rodo, caedo, plaudo ; veb.5, vergo, pendo, etc.; (b) verbs formed from a weak root, *'. e., those with vowel i, u, 6, and probably those with a: as di-vido, faro, olo (olere), ago. II. The Reduplicated class : The Present stem is formed by redupli- cation, with i in the reduplicated syllable : gen-, gi-gno (for GI-GEN-O), gi-gne-re, to beget ; sta-, si-sto, si-ste-re, to set, stand. Compare stare, to stand. Other forms, as sldo (for SI-S(E)DO), Ber5 (for si-so), and perhaps bibo, have the Reduplication concealed. III. The T class : The root, which usually ends in a guttural, is strengthened by to, te : flecto (FLEC-), flecte-re, to bend. IV. The Nasal class: In this class the root is strengthened by no, ne, the nasal being inserted A. In vowel-stems : sinO (si-), sine-re, to let ; line (LI-), line-re, to be- smear. B. After the characteristic liquid : cerno (CEE-), cerne-re, to sift, separate ; temno (TEM-), temne-re, to scorn. NOTES.— 1. After 1 assimilation takes place : pello (for pel-n5), pelle-re, to drive. 2. In a few verbs the strengthened forms (-no after a vowel, -ino after a liquid) are confined mainly to the third person Plural active of the Present, and are found not later than the close of the sixth century of the city : danunt (= dant), explenunt (= explent), nequinont (= nequeunt), and a few others. C. Before the characteristic mute : vinco (vie-), vince-re, to conquer ; frango (FRAG-), frange-re, to break; fundo (FUD-), funde-re, to pour. Before a p-mute n becomes m: rumpo (BUP-), rumpe-re, to rend; combo (CUB-), cumbe-re, to lie down. D. Here belong also those verbs in which the root is strengthened by -nuo, nue ; as sternuo (STER-), sternue-re, to sneeze. NOTE.— In verbs like tinguo, I soak, the consonantal u disappears before a conso- nant in the Pf . and Supine : tinxl, tine-turn. V. The Inchoative class : The Present stem has the suffix -sco, -see. ira-scor, lam in a rage ; cre-sco, I grow ; ob-dorml-sco, I fall asleep; apl-scor, I reach; pro-fid-scor, I set out ; nanci-scor (NAC-), I get; n5-sco (= gno-sco), / become acquainted ; po-sc5 (= porc-sco), I demand ; nHs-ce5 (= mic-sc-eoi, I mix; disco (= di-dc-sc3), / learn. A number of Incho- atives are derivative formations from substantives ; as, lapidSsco (from lapis), / become stone. VI. The I class : Instead of the simple thematic vowel i the root is increased by the form ie. In some forms of the Present stem, i. e., -the Pr. Inf., Impf. Subjv., second Sing., Pr. Impv., this appears in the form e ; in some other forms it appears as i : capi-6 (CAP-), cape-re, to take. THE STEM. 93 NOTE.— Verbs of the fourth conjugation also belong to the i class ; but for con- venience the i class is here restricted as above. VII. The Mixed class : Some verbs that originally belong to the i-class have gone over in the Present stem to the forms of the stem class : as venio (VEN-), venl-re, to come; video (VID-), vidS-re, to see; son5 (SON-), sona-re, to sound. II. THE PERFECT STEM. 134. I. Perfect in -vi (or -ul) : These are formed by the addition • (a) Of -vi to the stem as it appears in the Present Inf. in combina- tion with the thematic vowel. To this class belong the Perfects of the first and fourth conjugations, and the few verbs of the second conjuga- tion mentioned in 124 ; ama-re, ama-vl ; audl-re, audl-vl ; dele-re, del5-vl. (b) Of -uI to the Present stem after its characteristic vowel is dropped. Here belong the majority of the verbs of the second conjuga- tion ; mone-re, mon-ul. II. Perfect in -si: These are formed by the addition of -si to the root ; which is, as a rule, long either by nature or position. This class comprises a large number of verbs in the third conjugation in which the stem-characteristic consonant is a mute ; three in which it is -m (preme-re, to press ; sume-re, to take ; con-tem(n)e-re, to scorn) ; and a few in which it is -s, as ur-5, / burn, us-si; haereo, I stick, liaesl (= haes-sl). Examples are r6p5, 1 creep, rep-si ; scrlbo, / write, scrip-si ; dic5, / say, dixl (= dic-sl) ; carpo, I pluck, carp-si ; rado, I scrape, rasi (= rad-sl). NOTE.— But verbs in -ndo, take I in the Perfect : defend-0, / strike (ward) off, defend-i ; perhaps because they formed originally a reduplicated perfect ; as, mando, I chew, man(di)dl ; so (fe)fendl, I have struck. III. Reduplicated Perfects : These are formed by prefixing to the unstrengthened root its first consonant (or consonantal combination) together with the following vowel, a and ae being weakened to e, or, if the root began with a vowel, by prefixing e, and adding the termination •I. In Latin but few of these forms remain, and they have been vari- ously modified : disco, I learn, di-dici ; spondeS, / pledge, spo(s)pondl ; tango, J touch, te-ti-gl ; tundo, / strike, tu-tud-I ; ago, 7 act, Sgl (= e-ag-I) ; emo, I buy, Smi (= e-em-I). In composition the reduplication is in many cases dropped ; so always in compounds of cade-re, to fall ; caede-re, to fell ; cane-re, to sing ; falle-re, to deceive ; pange-re, to fix ; parce-re, to spare ; pare-re. to bear ; pende-re, to hang ; punge-re, to prick ; tange-re, to touch ; tende-re, to stretch (occasionally retained in late Latin) ; tonde-re, to shear (but occasionally retained in late Latin) ; tunde-re, to strike. Disc-ere, to learn, always retains it, and so posce-re, to demand, and ad- mordere, to bite. Of compounds of curre-re, to run, succurrere always 94 THE STEM. drops the reduplication, praecurrere always retains it : the others vary. Of compounds of dare, abscondere usually drops it, but all trisyllabic compounds that change the a, and all quadrisyllable compounds, retain it. Compounds of sistere, to set, and stare, to stand, retain it. IV. Perfect in I. Verbs of the third conjugation, with & short stem- syllable, take I in the Perfect, after lengthening the stem-syllable and changing a into 5. In many cases these Perfects are the remains of reduplicated forms : Ieg6, / read, I5g-l ; vide-o, I see, vld-i ; fodi-o, 1 stab, f5d-I ; fugi-6, I flee, fug-I ; frang-S, I Ireak, freg-I. V. Denominative verbs in-u5, like acu6, / sharpen; metuo, I fear ; also stermuJ, / sneeze, form the Perfect in -u-I after the analogy of pri- mary verbs, and the formation in -ul gradually extended in Latin. III. THE SUPINE STEM. 135. I- Supine in -turn, Perfect Passive Participle in -tus: The stems are formed by the addition of -tu or -to (a) To the stem as it appears in the Present Infinitive active. Here belong most verbs of the first and fourth conjugations, and those verbs of the second conjugation that are mentioned in 124 : ama-tum, dSl6- tum, audl-ttun. Those verbs of the second conjugation which form Perfect in -nl, form the Supine stem by weakening the thematic vowel e to i, and adding -tu, -to, except cgnsS-re, to deem, doce-re, to teach, mlscS-re, to mix, ten6-re, to hold, torrS-re, to scorch, which omit the the- matic vowel, and form censum, doctum, mlxtum, (tentum), tostum. (b) To the unstrengthened stem. Here belong most verbs of the third conjugation and the five verbs of the second just given, with sporadic forms in the other conjugations : cap-turn (capi5, I take), rep-turn (repo, I creep), die-turn (dlco, I say), fac-tum (faciS, I do). In combinations of -t- with a dental, assimilation took place, giving usually ss after a short vowel and s after a long vowel : scissum (scindC, I cleave), caesura (caedo, I fell). On the analogy of this and under the influence often of Perfect in -si, we find -s- also in some other stems : 1. In stems with a guttural characteristic ; as, fix-urn (figo, I fix) ; often with a preceding liquid : mersum (mergS, / dip ; Pf . mersi) ; tersum (tergeS, / wipe ; Pf . tersl) ; par sum < parco, I spare ; Pf. parsl, old) ; spar-sum (sparg5, / sprinkle ; Pf. sparsl) ; mul-sum (mulgeS, 1 milk ; Pf. mul-sl) ; but far-turn (farci5, / stuff; Pf . farsl) ; tortum (torqueS, / twist ; Pf . torsi) ; indul-tum (rare and post-classical, from indulged^ I indulge; Pf. indulsl). 2. In one with a labial characteristic : lap-sum (labor, I slip). 3. In some stems with characteristic s ; as, cSnsum (cSnseo, / deem ; see I. a.) ; haesum (haereo, I stick) ; plnsum (plnso, I pound). 4. In some stems with a nasal characteristic : pressum (premS, f press ; Pf . pressl ' ; mansion (maneo, I remain ; Pf. mansl). 5. In stems where 11, IT has arisen by assimilation : pulsum ( pello, 7 drive) ; falsum (fallo, /falsify) ; vulsum ivello, I pluck) ; cursum (currO, Iran) ; versum tverrS, / sweep). CHANGE OF CONJUGATION. 95 IT. FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE IN -turns. — The same changes occur in the stem as are found in the case of the Supine. 1. In some stems ending in -u a thematic vowel i is inserted ; as arguiturus (arguere, to prove); luiturus (luere, to loose); abnuiturus (abnuere, to deny) ; ruiturus (ruere, to rush) ; eruiturus (8ruere, to root out) ; fruituras (frui, to enjoy). 2. Some Future Participles are found without corresponding Per- feet : caliturus (calere, to be warm) ; cariturus (cargre, to lack) ; doliturus (dol6re, to grieve) ; iaciturus (iacgre, to lie) ; pariturus (parere, to obey) ; valiturus (valSre, to be well). 3. Irregular are : agn5turus, agniturus (agnoscere, to know well); dlsciturus (discere, to learn) ; hausurus, haustiirus (haurlre, to drain) ; nisurus (niti, to lean) ; moriturus (morl, to die) ; nosciturus (nSscere, to know) ; oriturus (orirl, to arise) ; pariturus (parere, to bear). Change of Conjugation. 136. A change of Conjugation occurs in verbs which show a long thematic vowel in the Present stem, but not in the Perfect stem, or the reverse. 1. Verbs with Perfect and Supine formed regularly, according to the third conjugation, have the Present stem formed according to one of the other three : auge-o, senti-o, saepi-o, veni-5, vide-o, vinci-5, 2. Verbs with Perfect and Supine formed according to the first, second, or fourth conjugations, have the Present stem formed according to the third, in consequence of strengthening : ster-n-6, ster-ne-re, stra-vl, stra-tum, to strew. cre-sc-o, cr5-sce-re, crS-vI, cr5-tum, to grow. li-n-o, line-re, 16-vI (11-vP, li-tum, to smear. 3. Verbs with the Present formed regularly according to the third conjugation, have the Perfect and Supine formed according to (a) the second, or (b) the fourth conjugation : (a) accumbere, to recline, fremere, to rage, gemere, to groan, glgnere, to beget, molere, to grind, strepere, to resound, vomere, to vomit, form Perfect in -ul, Supine in -itum. alere, to nourish, colere, to cultivate, consulere, to consult, frendere, to show the teeth, occulere, to conceal, rapere, to snatch, and its compounds form Perfect in -ul, Supine in -turn (-sum), For ali-tus, see 142, 3. auge-re, aux-1, auc-tum, to increase. sentl-re, sen-si, sen-sum, tofeel. saepi-re, saep-sl, saep-tum, to hedge about. venl-re, vSn-I, ven-tum, to come. vidS-re, vld-I, vi-sum, to see. vincl-re, vinx-X, vine-turn, to bind. go LIST OF VERBS COmpescere, to check, con-cinere, to sing together, and other compounds of canere, to sing, excellere, to excel, stertere, to snore, tremere, to tremble, form Perfect in -Hi, but no Supine. (&) arcessere, to summon, incessere, to enter, cupere, to desire, petere, to seek, quaerere, to search, and its compounds, rudere, to roar, sapere, to savor, form Per- fect in -IvI, Supine in -itum. 4. Stems vary among the first, second, and fourth conjugations. (a) Verbs with the Present formed according to the first, and Per- fect and Supine according to the second conjugation • crepare, to crackle, cubare, to lie, domare, to conquer, micare, to flash, plicare, to fold, sonar e, to sound, tonare, to thunder, vetare, to forbid, with Perfect in -ul, Supine in -itum : fricare, to rub, necare, to kill, secare, to cut, with Perfect in -ui, Supine in -turn (but participles in atus are occasional, principally in later Latin). (b) Verbs with Present formed according to fourth, and Perfect and Supine according to the second : amiclre, to wrap, aperlre, to open, operlre, to cover, sallre, to leap, and compounds. (c) Of the second and fourth conjugations is cie-o (ci-o), ciS-re (cl-re), civl, citum (ci-tum), to stir up, and its compounds ; while pot5, potare, to drink, forms Sup. po-tum or po-tatum, and Fut. Part, po-turus or pota-turus. 5. dare, to give, and stare, to stand, pass over to the third conjuga- tion in the Perfect, in consequence of reduplication. LIST OF VERBS ACCORDING TO THE PER- FECT FORM. PERFECT : -vl ; SUPINE : -turn. 137. Stem class : (a) Verbs of first and fourth conjugations, except those mentioned in 136, 4. Irregular in Supine is sepeli-o, sepeli-re, sepeli-vl, sepul-tum, to bury. (b) In the second conjugation : dele-o, d5l5-re, dSlS-vI, dele-turn, to destroy. fle-o, fle-re, fl§-vl, fle-tum, to weep. ne-o, ne-re, ne-vi, n5-tum, to spin. -ole-5 (ab-, in-), -ol6-re, -ole-vl, to grmc. These compounds form Supine in itum ; abolitum, inolitus. -ple5, -pie-re, pis-vl, pl6-tum, tojm. So the compounds with com-, in-, ex-, re-, sup-. vie-6, vie-re, vie-tus, to plait. Irregular is cie-6(ci-8), ciS-re (clre), cl-vl, cl-tum (ci-tum), to stir vp. In the compounds we find the Participles concitus or concitus, percitus, excltus or excitus, but accltus. ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM. 97 (c) In the third conjugation : arcess-o, arcesse-re, arcessi-vi, arcessl-tum, to send for. So, too, lacess-o, / tease, capess-o, / lay hold of. In early Latin we often find accerso, the relation of which to arcesso is variously explained. The fonns arcesslri, and later arcessiretur, from the fourth conjugation, also occur. in-cess-6, in-cesse-re, in-cessi-vl (cessi), to attack. So faccss-o, I cause, make off. pet-o, pete-re, peti-vl, petl-tum, to seek (fly at). quaer-o, quaere-re, quaesi-vi, quaesl-tum, to seek. con-quir-o, con-quire-re, conquisl-vl, con-quisl-tum, to hunt up. So other compounds of -quiro (quaero). rud-o, rude-re, rudl-vl, rudl-tum, to roar. ter-o, tere-re, trl-vl, trl-tum, to rub. TIB., i. 4,48, has at-teruisse,.aud APULEIUS has similar forms. 138. Reduplicated class : ser-o, sere-re, sg-vl, sa-tum, to sow. So consero, but with Sup. con-situm. 139. Nasal class: A. li-n-5, li-ne-re, lg-vl, li-tum, to besmear. So compounds of Iin5. Pf • li-vl is rare. si-n-6, si-ne-re, si-vi, si-tum, to let. So dS-sino, Heave off, and in early Latin, pono (= po-sino), I put. B. cer-n-o, cer-ne-re, crg-vl, (crg-tum), to separate. So dScerno, / decide. sper-n-o, sper-ne-re, spr5-vl, spr6-tum, to despise. ster-n-o, ster-ne-re, stra-vl, stra-tum, tos/rew. 140. Inchoative class : invetera-sc-o, invetera-sce-re, invetera-vl, invetera-tum, to grow old. pa-sc-o, pa-sce-re, pa-vl, pas-turn, to graze (trans.). vespera-sc-o, vespera-sce-re, vespera-vi, to become evening. So advesperasco. cre-sc-6, cr6-sce-re, cr6-vl, crg-tum, to grow. So the compounds. con-cupi-sc-o, -cupl-sce-re, -cupi-vl, -cupl-tum, to Ion gf 01: ob-dormi-sc-o, -dorml-sce-re, -dormi-vl, -dorml-tum, to fall asleep. So condormisco, 6dormlsc6. ex-ol6-sc-o, -ol6-sce-re, -ol5-vl, -o!6-tum, to get one's growth. So ob-solSsc5, 1 grow old. But ab-olesco, I disappear, has abolitum ; co-alesco, I rin»i' together, co-alitum; acl-olesco, I grow up, ad-ultum in the Sup.; and inolescS lacks the Supine. quig-sc-5, quiS-sce-re, quiS-vI, quie-tum, forest. 8ci-sc-o, scl-sce-re, scl-vl, sci-tum, to decree, So ad-8Cisco, / take on. 1 98 LIST OF VERBS SU-6SC-5, suS-sce-re, su6-vl, sue-tum, to accustom one's self, So compounds as-, con-, de-, man-. (g)no-sc-o, no-sce-re, no-vl, (no-turn), to know. So ignosco, / pardon ; but co-gn5sco, / recognise, and other compounds of nosco, have Sup. in -ittun. re-sip-isc-6, -sipl-sce-re, -sipl-vl, to come to otters senses. 141. 1-class: cupi-o, cupe-re, cupl-vi, cupi-tum, to desire. sapi-o, sape-re, sapl-vl (-ui\ to have a flavor. PEEFECT : -ui ; SUPINE : (i)tum. 142. Stem class : 1. The majority of the verbs of the second conjugation; see 134, 1, b, and 135, a. But sorbe-6, sorbS-re, sorb-ul, to tup vj>. Pf . sorp-si occurs iii VAL. MAX. and LUCAN. 2. Of the first conjugation : crep-5, crepa-re, crep-ul, crepi-tum, to raffle. So the compounds, but in early and late Latin the regular fornig of dis-creparo and in-crepare are occasional. cub-5, cuba-re, cub-ul, cubi-tiun, to lie. Occasional regular forms in post-Ciceronian Latin. clom-o, doma-re, doni-ui, domi-tum, to tame. fric-5, frica-re, fric-ul, fric-tum (-a-tum), to rub. Occasionally in early and more often in post-classical Latin, the regular forms are found in the compounds ; so always -frica-turus. mic-o, mica-re, mic-ul, to quiver, flash, But di-micare, toflght (onf), is regular, except occasionally in OVID. nec-5, neca-re, neca-vi (nec-ui rare), neca-tum, to kill. The compound 5neca-re, to kill off, has gnecavi in early Lathi, otherwise gnecul (rare) ; and enectus (but PLIK. MAI., gnecatus '. plic-5, plica-re, (plica- vl), plici-tum, to fold. The simple forms of plicare are rare. The compounds ap-, com-, ex-, im-, vary between -avl and -nl in the Pf., and -atum and -itum in the Sup. ; but CICERO uses always applicavi, application; complicavl, complicatom; and usually expli- cavl, always explicatum; always implicatum ; circiimplicare is always regular ; forms of replicare are rare. sec-Q, seca-re, sec-ul, sec-turn, to ait. Regular forms are early, late, and rare. son-o, sona-re, son-ui, soni-tum, to sound. But regularly sonatiirus. Regular forms are late. In early Latin the forms sonere, sonit, sonunt, resonit, resonunt, show that the simple verb was sonere. ton-6, tona-re, ton-ul, to thunder. But at-tonitus aud intonatus (Hon., Epod. 2, 51). ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM. 99 vet-5, veta-re, vet-ul, But PERSIUS (5, 90) uses veta-vi. veti-tum, toforbid. 3. Of the third conjugation : frem-6, freme-re, frem-ul, to roar, rage. gem-o, geme-re, gem-ui, to groan. vom-o, vome-re, vom-ul, vomi-tum, to vomit. al-o, ale-re, al-ul, Participle ali-tus occurs from LIVY on. al-tnm, to nourish. col-o, cole-re, col-ul, cul-tum, to cultivate. con-cin-o, -cine-re, So occinere, praecinere. -cin-ui, to sing together. c5n-sul-5, c5n-sule-re, con-sul-ul, con-sul-tum, to consult. deps-6, depse-re, deps-ul, deps-tus, to knead. mol-o, mole-re, mol-ui, moli-tum, to grind. occul-o, occule-re, occul-ui, occul-tum, to conceal. pins-o, plnse-re, plns-ui, pinsi-tum, to pound. Sup. also pinsum, plstum. Collateral forms of plso, plsere, are early and rare ; so also is plnslbant. ser-o, sere-re, (ser-tum), to string (out). Common in compounds : as, desero, dgserere, dfiserui, dSsertum, to desert. The same forms are found occasionally in compounds of serere, to sow (138), but not in classical Latin. stert-5, sterte-re, stert-ul, strep-6, strepe-re, strep-ul, tex-o, texe-re, tex-ul, tex-tum, Irregular are met-6, mete-re, mess-ul, mes-sum, vol-o, vel-le, vol-ui, So n51o, malo ; see 174. 4. In the fourth conjugation : amici-o, amicl-re, amic-ui (amixi), amic-tum, aperi-6, aperi-re, aper-ul, aper-tum, operi-o, operl-re, oper-ul, oper-tum, sali-o, sali-re, sal-ul, sal-turn, to snore. (strepi-tum), to make a din. to weave. to mow. to ivish. to clothe, to open, to cover up. to leap. The regular Perfects sallvl, salil, are found iu compounds, but usually in post- classical writers, and often syncopated. 143. Reduplicated class : sji-gn-o (GEN-), gl-gne-re, gen-ul, geni-tum, to beget. Early Latin has the Present forms genit, genunt, genat, genitur, genuntur, ^enendi, genl. 100 LIST OF VERBS 144. Nasal class : frend-o, frende-re, frS-sum, frSs-sum, to gnash. Also in the form frende-o, frende-re. ac-cumb-6, -cumbe-re, cub-ui, cubi-ttun, to lie down. So also the compounds con-, dis-, in- ; but re-cumbo lacks the Supine. ex-cell-o, -celle-re, (cell-ul), (cel-sus\ to surpass. But per-cellere, tobeat down, has Pf . per-cull, Sup. per-culsum. Excelluerunt is found in GELL. xiv. 3, 7, and in AUGUSTINE ; otherwise forms of Pf. and Sup. do not occur. 145. The Inchoative class : dispeac-o, dispesce-re, dispesc-ui, So compescere, to check. /,, i,t i, *,*,-. A large number of verbs are formed from verbs of the second con- jugation, or from substantives or adjectives, and take Pf. in -ul; as, oo-alesc-o, See 140. alesce-re, al-ui, e-vanesc-o, vanesce-re, van-Til, con-valesc-6, valesce-re, val-ui, in-gemisc-o, gemlsce-re, gem-ul, notesc-o, notesce-re, not-ul, incalesc-o, incalesce-re, incal-ui. 146. The I-class : rapi-o, cor-ripio, rape-re, ripe-re, rap-Hi, rip-ul, ali-tum, vali-tum, rap-ttun, rep- turn, to grow together. to disappear, to get well, to sigh . to become known, to get warm. to snatch, to seize. So other compounds. In early Latin, surripere syncopates some of its forms, as surpuit, surpere ; surpuerat occurs in HOK. ; aoristic forms, as rapsit, surrepsit, belong also to the early period. 131, 4, b. 2. PERFECT: -si; SUPINE: -turn, -sum. 147. Stem class : i. In the second conjugation : iube-6, iube-re, On sorbeo see 142, 1. arde-o, ride-o, haere-o, mane-o, suade-o, ard6-re, ride-re, haerS-re, mane-re, suadS-re, ins-si, ar-sl, ri-sl, hae-sl, man-si, sua-si, ius-sum, ar-stun, rl-sum, 'hae-suni1, man-sum, sua-sum, With dental dropped before ending of Pf . and Supine. auge-5, auge-re, auxi, auc-tum, frige-o, frigg-re, (frixl), luce-o. lucS-re, luxl, to order. to be on fire, to laugh (at), to stick (to), to remain, to counsel. to cause to wax- to be chilled, to give light. ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM. 101 luge-6, luge-re, luxl, to be in mourning. alge-o, algg-re, al-sl, to freeze. fulge-o, fulge-re, ful-sl, to glow. In early Latin, forms of the third conjugation occur : fulgit, fulgere, effulgero (VERG., A, vm. 677). indulge-o, indulg8-re, indul-si, mulce-6, mulce-re, mul-si, Rarely mulc-tus in compounds. mulge-o, mulg6-re, mul-si, terge-o, terge-re, ter-sl, (indul-tum), mul-sum, to give way. to stroke. mul-sumXctum), tomUk. ter-sum, to wipe. Forms of the third conjugation : tergit, tergitur, terguntur, are occasionally found ; and so too in some late compounds. VARRO has tertus. torque-o, torqu6-re, tor-si, turge-o, turg6-re, tur-sl, urge-6, urge-re, ur-sl, co-nive-5 (gnigv), -nlve-re, -nixl (IvI), 2. In the third conjugation : tor-turn, to twist, to swell, to press, to close the eyes. carp-5, carpe-re, de-cerp-o, de-cerpe-re, carp-si, carp-turn, de-cerp-sl, de-cerp-tum, to pluck, to pluck off. clep-6, clepe-re, Rare and ante-classic. clep-si (clep-1), clep-tum, tofilch. nub-o, nube-re, imp-si, nup-tum, to put on a ' (as a bride). re>5, repe-re, rep-si, rep-tum, to creep. scalp-o, scalpe-re, scalp-si, scalp-turn, to scrape. scrlb-o, scribe-re, scrip-si, scrip-turn, to write. sculp- 5, sculpe-re, sculp-sl, sculp-tum, to chisel. serp-6, serpe-re, serp-sl, serp-tum, to creep. prem-5 (-primo), preme-re, pres-si, pres-sum, to press. Some compounds of emo, I take, buy, have Pf. in -si, Sup. in -turn, before which a euphonic p developes : c5m-o, come-re, dem-6, deme-re, prom-o, prome-re, sum-6, sume-re, On contemn-o see 149, c. dlc-o, dice-re, c5m-p-si, dem-p-si, prom-p-sl, sum-p-si, com-p-tum, dem-p-tum, prom-p-tum, sum-p-tum, to adorn, to take away, to take out. to take. dixi ' die-si ', die-turn, Impv. die, see 130, 5. Occasionally in old Latin dicSbo for Future. to say. duxi, due-turn, duc-o, diice-re, Imperative due, see 130, 5. fig-o, fige-re, fixi, fixum, Part. fictUS for fixus is occasional in early Latin. -fllg-6(con-, af-,in-), -fllge-re, -flixi, -flic-turn, Simple verb is found occasionally in early Latin. frIg-6, frige-re, frlxi, flic-turn, to lead. tofasten. to strike. to parch. IO2 LIST OF VERBS sug-o, suge-re, suxi, Put. exsugebo is found in PLAUT., Ep. 188. merg-6, merge-re, mer-sl, sparg-5, sparge-re, spar-si, con-sperg-o, con-sperge-re, con-sper-si, coqu-5, coque-re, [-lig-5 aeg-), -lige-re, dl-lig-6, dl-lige-re, intelligo, or inteUego, intellege-re, negligo, or neg-leg-6, neg-lege-re, coxi, -16x1, dl-lexl, intel-lexl, suc-tum, mer-sum, spar-sum, con-sper-sum, coc-tum, -lec-tum.] dil6c-tum, to suck. to plunge. to strew, to besprinkle. to cook. to love. intel-lgc-tum, to understand. neg-lSxI, neg-16c-tum, to neglect. Other compounds have legl. SALL., J. 40, 1, has negl6gisset. reg-o, rege-re, r6xl, rSc-tum, di-rig-5, dl-rige-re, dl-rSxI, di-rec-tum, per-g-6, per-ge-re, per-rSxi, per-r6c-tum, su-rg-o, su-rge-re, sur-r6xl, sur-r6c-tum, But expergo formed expergitus in carry and late Latin. teg-6, tege-re, t6xl, claud-o, claude-re, clau-sl, con-, ex-clud-5, ex-clude-re, ex-clu-sl, Early Latin shows also cliido, cludere. laed-5, col-lid-o, laede-re, col-lide-re, lae-si, col-11-si, lud-5, lude-re, lu-sl, plaud-o ( ap-plaud-o), plaude-re, plau-si, ex-plOd-5, ex-plode-re, ex-plo-sl, rad-6, rade-re, ra-sl, rCd-5, r5de-re, rS-sl, trud-5, trude-re, tru-sl, vad-5 (in-, S-), -vade-re, -va-sl, ced-o, cede-re, ces-sl, quati-6, quate-re, (quas-si), con-cutifi (per-, ex-), con-cute-re, con-cus-si, mitt-6, dI-vid-5, ur-5, com-bur-5, ger-o, flu-5 (flugv-), stru-o (strugv-), trah-o (tragh-), veh-6 (vegh), vlv-o (vigv-), mitte-re, mi-si, dl-vide-re, di-vl-si, tire-re, us-sl, com-bure-re, com-bus-si, gere-re, flue-re, strue-re, trahe-re, vehe-re, vlve-re, ges-si, fluxi, struxi, traxi, vexl, vlxl, tSc-tum, clau-sum, ex-clu-sum, lae-sum, col-ll-sum, lu-sum, plau-sum, ex-plo-sum, ra-sum, r5-sum, tru-sum, -va-sum, ces-sum, quas-sum to keep right, to guide, to go on. to rise up. to cover. to shut. to shut up, out. to harm. to strike together, to play. to clap, to hoot off. to scratch. to gnaw. to push. to go. to give way, to shake. con-cus-sum, to shatter. mis-sum, to send. di-vi-sum, to part. us-tum, to burn. com-bus-tum, to burn up. ges-tum, (flux-us), struc-tum, trac-tum, vec-tum, vic-tuin, to carry, to flow, to build, to drag. to carry. to live, ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM. 103 148. Tlie T-class: flect-6, flecte-re, flexl, flexuni, tf> bend. nect-6, The Pf . forms : necte-re, nexl (nexui), nexum, in-nexui (VERG., A. v., 435). to knot. pect-5, pecte-re, pexl, pexum, to comb. plect-o, plecte-re, (plexl), plexum, to plait. pect-5, pecte-re, pexl, plect-o, plecte-re, (plexl), 149. The Nasal class : (a) Supine without N : fing-6, finge-re, finxi, ming-o, minge-re, minxl, ping-S, pinge-re, pinxi, string-o, stringe-re, strinxi, (b) Supine with N : ang-o, ange-re, anxi, cing-o, cinge-re, cinxi, e"-mung-o, 6-munge-re, e-munxi, iung-o, iunge-re, iunxl, ling-5, linge-re, linxi, ning-o, ninge-re, ninxl, pang-5, pange-re, panxi, finxi, fic-tum, toform. minxl, mic-tum, to urinate. pinxi, pic-turn, to paint. strinxi, stric-tum, to draw tight. to throttle, vex. cine-turn, to gird. 8-munc-tum, to wipe the nose. iunc-tum, to yoke, join. line-turn, to lick. to snow. pane- turn, to drive in. Perfect also p6gf, and Supine pactum. Compare 135 and paclscor, 165. plang-o, plange-re, planxl, plane-turn, to smite. -stingu-o, -stingue-re, -stinxl, -stinc-tum, to put out. So the compounds ex-, dis-, re- ; the simple verb is ante-classic. ting-o (tingu-Q), ting(u)e-re, tinxi, tinc-tum, to wet, dye. ung-o (ungu-5), ung(u)e-re, unxi, unc-tum, to anoint. (c) tem-n-o (rare) and its compounds form the Pf. with a euphonic p: con-tem-n-o, -temne-re, -tem-p-si, -tem-p-tum, to despise. 150. The I-class : i. In the third conjugation : f-lici-5 (LAC), lice-re, -lexl, -lec-tum], to lure. pel-lici-5, pel-lice-re, pel-lexl, pel-lec-tum, to allure. •So allicere, illicere, which, however, have early Pf. in -ui, as does pellicere also. But 6-licere has -ul regularly in classical times, and 6-lexi only later. [-spici-5 (SPEC), -spice-re, -spexi, -spec-tuml, to peer. per-spici-5, per-spice-re, per-spexl, per-spec-tum, to see through. So the compounds with ad-, con-, d6-, in-0 IO4 LIST OF VERBS 2. In the fourth conjugation : saepi-6, saepl-re, sanci-o, sancl-re, The Sup. sanci-tum is rare. vinci-o, vinci-re, farci-6 (-ferci-o\ farcl-re, fulci-o, fulcl-re, sarci-o, sarci-re, senti-6, sentl-re, hauri-6, haurl-re, VERG., A. iv., 383, has hausurus. Early Latin shows haurfbant (Lucn.) and haurierint ; hauriturus is very late. saep-si, saep-tum, to hedge in. sauxi, sanc-tum. to hallow. vinxl, vine-turn, to bind. far-si, far-turn, to stuff. ful-sl, ful-tum, to prop. sar-si, sar-tum, to patch. sen-si. sen-sum, tofeel. hau-sl, haus-tum, to drain. rauci-o, raucl-re, This verb is very rare. rau-si, to be hoarse. PERFECT : -1 WITH REDUPLICATION ; SUPINE : -sum, -turn. 151, In theirs/ conjugation : I. d-6, da-re, ded-i, da-turn, to give, jmt, do. Everywhere a, except in das, thou givest, and dS, give thou. 1. Like d5, are conjugated the compounds with dissyllabic words, such as : circum- d-5, 1 surround ; satis-do, I give bail ; pessum-do, I ruin ; v6num-do, I sell ; thus : circum-d-6, circum-da-re, circum-de-di, circum-da-tum, to surround. 2. The compounds of da-re with monosyllabic words pass over wholly into the Third Conjugation. ab-d-5, ab-de-re, ab-did-i, ab-di-tum, to put away. ad-d-o, ad-de-re, ad-did-i, ad-di-tum, to put to. con-d-5, con-de-re, con-did-1, con-di-tum, to put up (found). abs-con-do, abs-con-de-re, abs-con-d-i, abs-con-di-tum, to put far away. Pf. abscondidl is found in PL., Mer. 360, then not until late Latin. cr6-d-o, cr5-de-re, cre-did-1, crS-di-tum, to put faith. dg-d-5, dg-de-re, de-did-1, de-di-tum, to give up. e-d-o, 6-de-re, S-did-I, e-di-tum, to put out. in-d-o, in-de-re, in-did-I, in-di-tum, to put in. per-d-o, per-de-re, per-did-I, per-di-tum, to fordo (ruin). pr5-d-o, pro-de-re, pro-did-i, pr6-di-tum, to betray. red-d-o, red-de-re, red-did-i, red-di-tum, to give back. tra-d-o, tra-de-re, tra-did-1, tra-di-tum, to give over. v6n-d-o, v6n-de-re, ven-did-1, v6n-di-tum, to put up to sale. NOTE. — In early Latin dare formed the Pr. Subjv., also duim. So in some of ita compounds, as perduim. See 130, 4. 2. Bt-o, sta-re, stet-i, (sta-tii-rus^, to stand. So the compounds : ad-st-o, con-st-6, ad-sta-re, ccn-sta-re, ad-stit-I, c5n-stit-I, to stand by. to standfast. ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM. lOg In-st-o, in-sta-re, m-stit-I, to stand upm. ob-st-o, ob-sta-re, ob-stit-I, to stand out against. per-st-o, per-sta-re, per-stit-1, to stand finn. prae-st-o, prae-sta-re, prae-stit-f, to stand ahead. re-st-o, re-sta-re, re-stit-1, to stand over. dl-st-o, dl-sta-re, to stand apart. ex-st-o, ex-sta-re, to stand out. All compounds of stare with dissyllabic prepositions have, however, -steti in the Perfect, as : ante-sto, / am superior ; inter-sto, / am between ; super-sto, / stand vpon ; thus : circum-st-o, circum-sta-re, circum-stet-i, to stand round. NOTE.— Compare sisto and its compounds ; 154, i. 152. In the second conjugation : morde-o, mordS-re, mo-mord-1, mor-sum, to bite. pende-o, pendS-re, pe-pend-I, to hang (intr.). sponde-5, sponde-re, spo-pond-i, spon-sum, to pledge oneself '. Compounds omit the reduplication, but PLAUT. shows also de-spo-pondisse and de-spo-ponderas. tonde-o, tondS-re, to-tond-i, ton-sum, to shear. 153. In the third conjugation : (a) Stem class. Reduplication lost in the compounds : cad-6, cade-re, ce-cid-I, ca-sum, tofall. oc-cid-o, oc-cide-re, oc-cid-i, oc-ca-sum, to perish. re-cidere sometimes forms reccidl, as well as recidl, in the Perfect. caed-6, caede-re, ce-cld-i, cae-sum, to/ell. oc-cld-6, oc-cide-re, oc-cld-i, oc-cl-sum, to kill. can-o, cane-re, ce-cin-i, (can-turn), to sing. Compounds form the Pf . in -ui. For (cantum), cantatum was used. parc-o, parce-re, pe-perc-i (par-si), (par-sums), to spare. com-parco (-perco), com-parce-re, com-pars-J, com-par-sum, to save. pars! is common in early Latin, and is the only form used by PLAUTUS. Early Latin shows rarely parcui. TER. uses compersit. 154. (b) Reduplicated class : i. sisto (— si-st-o), as a simple verb, has the transitive meaning, 7 (cause to) stand, but in its compounds, the intransitive meaning, / stand. Compare sto, I stand, and its compounds (151) : sist-o, siste-re, (stit-I), sta-tum, to (cause to) stand. So the compounds : con-sist-o, con -siste-re, c5n-stit-I, con-sti-tum, to come to a stand, d§-sist-o (ab-), dS-siste-re, d6-stit-l, de-sti-tum, to stand off. io6 LIST OF VERBS ex-sist-6, ex-siste-re, ex-stit-i, ex-sti-tum, to stand up. ob-sist-6, ob-siste-re, ob-stit-i, ob-sti-tum, to take a stand against. re-sist-6, re-siste-re, re-stit-1, re-sti-tum, to withstand. ad-sist-o, ad-siste-re, ad-stit-i, — to stand near. in-sist-5, in-siste-re, In-stit-I, — to stand upon. circum-sist-6, circum-siste-re, circum-stet-i, to take a stand round. 2. bi-b5, bi-be-re, bi-bl, (bi-bi-tus), to drink. No Supine. The Pf. Part, is late. 155. (c) Nasal class: fall-6, falle-re, fal-sum, to cheat. fe-fell-I, The compound refellO has the Perfect refelll, and lacks Supine. pell-6, pelle-re, pe-pul-I, pul-sum, to push, drive back. repello loses the reduplicating vowel in Pf . reppull. toll-6, tolle-re, to lift up. Pf. and Sup. are formed sus-tull (from reduplicated Pf. tetull, 171, N. 1) and sub- latum (for t'la-tum) ; a recent view makes su-stull from (s)tollS. (pang-5), (pange-re), pe-pig-i, pac-tum, to drive a bargain. The Pr. forms are supplied by paciscor, 165. The Pf . pegl, rare in the simple form, is regular in the compounds com-, im-, op-. See 149, b. tang-6 (TAG), tange-re, at-ting-6, at-tinge-re, So with other compounds. pend-o, pende-re, tend-5, tende-re, te-tig-I, at-tig-i, tac-tum, at-tac-tum, to touch. to border upon. pe-pend-i, pen-sum, to hang (trans.). te-tend-i, ten-sura and -turn, to stretch. ex-tend-6, ex-tende-re ex-tend-I, ex-t6n-sum and -turn, to stretch out. os-tend-S, os-tende-re, os-tend-i, os-tSn-sum (-tus), to stretch at, sliow. The compounds prefer the Sup. in -turn; so always attentus, contentus, usually distentus and iutentus. pung-5, punge-re, pu-pug-I, punc-tum, to prick. inter-puugo, inter-puuge-re, inter-punxi, inter-punc-tum, to place points between. tund-o, tunde-re, tu-tud-I, tun-sum, tu-sum, to thump. Simple form has usually tunsus in the Participle ; in the compounds more often tusus. The reduplicating vowel is lost in rettudl. curr-6, curre-re, cu-curr-I, cur-sum, to run. The compounds vary in their use of the reduplication ; praecurrere always has the reduplication, succurrere always omits it ; other compounds vary. See 134, HI. 156. Inchoative class : disco (= di-d(e)c-sc5), dlsce-re, di-dic-I, to learn. A late form is Fut. Part, dlscitttrus. Compounds retain reduplication. See 134, in. pOsc-o (= porc-sc5), posce-re, Compounds retain the reduplication. po-posc-1, — See 134, in. to claim. 157. (e) Thel-class: pari-5, pare-re, pe-per-i, par-turn (pariturus), to briny forth, The compounds drop the reduplication and form the Inf. in -Ire. But reperire, to find, forms its Pf., repperl, with omission of the vowel of reduplication. ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM. IQ? PERFECT: -I; SUPINE: -turn, -sum. 158. In the first conjugation : iuv-6, iuva-re, iuv-I, iu-tum (iuvaturus), to help. ad-iuv-5, -iuva-re, -iuv-1, -iu-tum (-iu-turus), to standby as aid. (lav-6), (lav-ere), lav-I, lau-tum (lo-tum), to wash. lav-o, lava-re, (lava-vi), lava-turn, to wash. The Present forms of lavere belong principally to early Latin, with occasional forms in Augustan poets and late writers ; lautum and iQtum are both used in class- ical times ; but lautum belongs rather to early, lotum to post-classical Latin. The form lavatum is early and poetical. 159. In the second conjugation : cave-o, cavS-re, cav-I, cau-tum, to take heed. fave-o, fav6-re, fav-I, fau-tum, to be well-disposed, ferve-o (o), ferv6-re (ere), ferv-I (ferb-ul), to seethe. The Pr. forms of the third conjugation belong to early Latin and the poets. The Pf . in -ul is post-Ciceronian. fove-o, fovB-re, f5v-I, f5-tum, to keep warm. move-6, mov5-re, mov-1, mo-tum, to move. pave-o, pav6-re, pav-1, to quake (with fear). prande-o, prand5-re, prand-i, pran-sum, to breakfast. sede-6, sedS-re, sSd-i, ses-sum, to sit. stride-o (-d5), strldg-re(-e-re), strld-I, to whistle, screech. vove-o, vovS-re, vov-1, vo-tum, to now. The Present forms of the third conjugation belong almost entirely to Augustan poets and later writers. vide-o, vide-re, vld-I, vl-sum, to see. 160. In the third conjugation : With long vowel in the Perfect. i. The Stem, class: ag-o, age-re, Sg-I, ac-tum, to do, drive. co-g-5, c5-ge-re, co-eg-1, co-ac-tum, to compel. dS-g-o, d6-ge-re, to pass (time). red-ig-6, red-ige-re, red-6g-i, red-ac-tum, to bring back. em-0,^ eme-re, em-1, emp-tum, to take, to buy. inte'r-im-6, -ime-re, -em-I, -emp-tum, to make aivay with. CO-em-5, / buy up, is conjugated like em-0. But the compounds with ad-, ex-, inter-, red-, take -im-o. So, too, dir-im-5, / sever. ed-6, ede-re, 8d-I, S-sum, to eat. NOTE.— In agere, edere, emere, the reduplication has coalesced with the root ; as, 6gl = eagl. cud-o, cude-re, (cQd-I), (cu-sum), to hammer. The Pf. and Sup. occur in compounds only. io8 LIST OF VERBS leg-o, lege-re, l^g-1, iSc-trun, to pick up, read. col-lig-6, col-lige-re, col-leg-i, col-lgc-tum. to gather. So the other compounds, except di-lig-o, intel-leg-6, neg-leg-6, see 147, 2. lc-5 (defective), Ice-re, ic-I, ic-tum, to strike. Present stem rare : ic-it, ic-itur, ic-imur. sid-o, side-re, sld-I, to fit down. The Pf. was originally reduplicated as the Present ; see 133, u. In composition the Pf. is -sedi, -sessum,/TO»i sede-5, thus : con-sid-o, con-side-re, con-sed-i, con-ses-sum, to settle down. scab-i, to scratch. solv-1, solu-tum, to loose, pay. vert-1, ver-sum, to turn. revert-i (active), re-ver-sum, to turn back. verr-i (rare), ver-sum, to sweep. vis-i, to visit. volv-i, volu-tum, to roll. OLI percel!5, percull, see 144. On tollo, sustull, sec 155. scab-o, scabe-re, solv-5, solve-re, vert-6, verte-re, re-vert-or, re-vert-1, verr-5, verre-re, vis-5, vise-re, volv-6, volve-re, 2. The Nasal class : psall-o, psalle-re, psall-I, sall-6, salle-re, (sall-I), Very rare except in the past participle salsus. vell-o, velle-re, vell-i (vul-si), vnl-sum, The Pf . vulsi is post-Augustan. to play on the cithern. sal-sum, to salt. to pluck. lamb-o, lambe-re, lamb-I, to lick. rump-o, rumpe-re, rup-i, rup-tum, to break. ac-cend-o, ac-cende-re, ac-cend-i, ac-c6n-sum, to kindle. d6-fend-o, fund-5 (Ftro), de"-fende-re, funde-re, de-fend-i, fud-i, de-fen-suui, fu-sum, to strike away, defend, to pour. mand-o, mande-re, mand-I, man-sum, to chew. pand-o, pande-re, pan-sum in Supine is late. pand-1, pas-sum, to spread out. prehend-o, prehende-re, prehend-i, Often shortened to prSndo, prfindere, prendi, prehgn-sum, to seize. prensum. scand-o, scande-re, a(d)-, d5-scend-5, de-scende-re, scand-i, de-scend-i. scan-sum, de-scen-sum, to climb, toclimb up, down. frang-6, per-fring-o, frange-re, per-fringe-re, freg-i, per-frgg-i, frac-tum, per-frac-tum, to break, to shiver. linqu-o, re-linqu-o, linque-re, re-linque-re, liqu-i, re-liqu-I, re-lic-tum, to leave, to leave behind. (pang-o), com-ping-o, See 149, b, 155. (pange-re), com-pinge-re, (P8g-»i com-peg-i. (pac-tum), com-pac-tum, to drive in. to drive tight. vinc-o (vie), vince-re, vlc-l, vic-tum, to conquer. ACCORDING TO THE PERFECT FORM. IO9 3. The I-class. (a) With long vowel in the Perfect. capi-o (cap-), cape-re, . c5p-I, cap-turn, to take. ac-cipi-o, ac-cipe-re, ac-cep-I, ac-cep-tum, to receive. faci-6, face-re, fec-1, fac-tum, to make. cale-faci-o (calf.), cale-face-re, cale-fSc-I, cale-fac-tum, to make warm. per-fici-o, per-fice-re,' per-fe"c-l, per-fec-tum, to achieve. The Pf. was originally reduplicated ; on Impv. fac, see 130, 5. fodi-o, fode-re, fod-1, fos-sum, to dig. fugi-o, fuge-re, fug-f, (fug-i-turus), to flee. iaci-o, iace-re, ie"c-I, iac-tum, to cast. con-ici-5, con-ice-re, con-i6c-i, con-iec-tum, to gather. (b) With short vowel in the Pf. due to the loss of the reduplication : find-o, finde-re, fid-1, fis-sum, to cleave. scind-5, scinde-re, scid-I, scis-sum, to split. The reduplicated form sci-cidl is found in early Latin. 161. In the fourth conjugation : amici-o forms rarely in late Latin amid ; see 142, 4. com-peri-5, com-perl-re, com-per-1, com-per-tum, to find out. re-peri-5, re-perl-re, rep-per-I, re-per-tum, tofind. See the simple verb parere, 157. veni-o, venl-re, v6n-I, venjtum, to come. In early Latin sporadic tenses from a form venere occur, as advenat, Svenat. 162. A number of verbs of the third conjugation have a character- istic -u- ; these form the perfect in -I. ab-lu-o, ab-lue-re, ab-lu-1, ab-lu-tum, to wash off. ab-nu-o, ab-nue-re, ab-nu-I, (ab-nu-itur-us), to dissent. acu-o, acue-re, acu-i, acu-tum, to sharpen. ad-nu-o(an-nu-o), ad-nue-re, ad-nu-i, to nod assent. argu-6, argue-re, argu-1, argu-tum, to accuse. batu-o, batue-re, batu-i, to beat. con-gru-o, con-grue-re, con-gru-1, to agree. de-libu-o, dS-libue-re, d6-libu-I, dg-libii-tum, to anoint. ex-u-6, ex-ue-re, ex-u-i, ex-u-tum, to put off, doff. im-bu-5, im-bue-re, im-bu-I, im-bu-tum, to dip, dye. in-du-6, in-due-re, in-du-i, in-du-tum, to put on, don. lu-o, lue-re, lu-1, lu-itur-us, to atone for. metu-o, metue-re, metu-I, tofear. minu-o, minue-re, minu-1, minu-tum, to lessen. plu-o, plue-re, plu-it, pluv-it, to rain. ru-o, rue-re, ru-I, ru-tum (ruiturus), to rush down. spu-6, spue-re, spu-1, spu-tum, to speio. statu-6, statue-re, statu-i, statu-tum, co settle. sternu-5, sternue-re, sternu-I, to sneeze. BU-O, sue-re, su-i, su-tum, to sew. tribu-o, tribue-re, tribu-1, tribti-tum, to allot. I IO DEPONEXTS. DEPONENTS. 163. The majority of the deponent verbs belong to the first conju- gation. In many instances they have parallel active forms in early or in late Latin. The principal verbs are as follows : In the first conjugation : adul-or, adula-rl, aclula-tus sum, tofaicn upon. Occasionally active in ante-classical Latin (LucR. v., 1070) and more often in later Latin. alterc-or, alterca-rl, alterca-tus sum, to wrangle. In early Latin altercasti (TBB., And. 653), altercas. Active forms more common in late Latin. arbitr-or, arbitra-ri, arbitra-tus sum, to think. PLAUT. uses this verb also as an active, but later this usage is rare. aucup-or, aucupa-ri, aucupa-tus sum, to try to catch. Active forms are common in early Latin. augur-or, augura-rf, augura-tus sum, to take the auguries. Active forms are early, legal, and late. Use as a passive is occasional in the clas- sical period. auspic-or, auspica-rl, auspica-tus sum, to take the auspices. Active forms are early and late. Cic. and LIVT use the verb as a passive in a few instances. comit-or, comita-rl, comita-tus sum, to accompany. Poets (Ov., PROP., etc.) use the active forms frequently. The Perfect Part, comita- tus is common as a passive, also in classical Latin. comment-or, commenta-rl, commenta-tus sum, to discuss. Cic. uses commentatus as a passive in Br. 88, 301, Fam. xvi., 26, 1. conflict-or, conflicta-rl. confllcta-tus sum, to struggle. Occasionally found for confllctare. See TEB., Arid., 93. conspic-or, conspica-rl, conspica-tus sum, to descry. So dBspicor, suspicor. But a few forms are occasionally (usually in early Latin) used as passives, especially dSspicatus (PLAUT., TEK.), compared dSspicatissimus by Cic. (Sest. 16, 36, Verr. in., 41, 98). PLAUT., Cos. 394, suspicSs. contempl-or, contempla-rl, contempla-tus sum, to survey. The active forms are used frequently in early Latin (regularly by PLAUT.). c5pul-or, c5pula-rl, copulS-tus sum, to join. So PLAUT., Aid. 116. Otherwise everywhere copulare. crlmin-or, crimina-rl, crimina-tus sum, to charge. PLAUT. uses crJminaret, ENNIUS crlminat. cunct-or, cuncta-rl, cuncta-tus sum, to delay. Active forms are occasional in early and late Latin. dign-or, dfgna-rl, dlgna-tus sum, to deem worthy. This verb is predominantly post-classical and poetical. The active forms are early and rare ; perhaps once in CICERO. DEPONENTS. Ill fabric-or, fabrica-rl, fabrica-tus sum, to forge, The active forms belong to poetry aud to post- Augustan prose. faener-or, faenera-rl, faenera-tus sum, to lend on Interest. Active forms occasional in early Latin and more frequent in late Latin. fluctu-or, fluctua-ri, fluctua-tus sum, to undulate. Active forms are rare in PLAUT. and in Cic., but iiot uncommon later. The de- ponent forms are post-Ciceronian. (for), fa-rl, fa-tus sum, to speak. See 175, 3. frustr-or, frustra-ri, frustra-tus sum, to deceive. Active forms rare, but at all periods. illacrim-or, illacrima-rl, illacrima-tus sum, to weep over. In Cic. and HOR. ; otherwise active. interpret-or, interpreta-rl, interpreta-tus sum, to interpret. Cic. uses interpretatus occasionally as a passive ; likewise LIVY and others. luct-or, lucta-rl, lucta-tus sum, to wrestle. PLAUT., TER., ENNIUS, VARHO show sporadic forms of the active. ludific-or, ludifica-rl, ludifica-tus sum, to make aport. Active frequent in PLAUT., and occasionally later. medic-or, medica-rl, medica-tus sum, to heal. The active is once in PLAUT., and frequent in poets and post- Augustan prose. medit-or, medita-ri, medita-tus sum, to think over The form meditatUS is very commonly found as a passive. muner-or, munera-rl, munera-tus sum, to bestow. Active forms in early Latin and occasionally in Cic. and later. nutrlc-or, niitrlca-rl, nutrlca-tus sum, to suckle. Active forms in early Latin. od5r-or, odora-rl, odora-tus sum, to smell. Active forms occasional at all periods. opln-or, opfna-ri, opina-tus sum, to think. opino is frequent in early Latin, and oplnatus as passive is common in CICEKO. palp-or, palpa-rl, palpa-tus sum, to stroke. Is occasional (principally in early Latin) for palpare. popul-or, popula-ri, popula-tus sum, to ravage. Active forms in simple verb and compounds are early, poetical, and post-classic sclscit-or, sclscita-rl, sclscita-tus sum, to ingittre. PLAUT., Merc. 389, sciscitaro (active). scrut-or, scruta-ri, scruta-tus sum, to search. PLAUT., Aul. 657, perscrutavl. The use as a passive occurs first in SENECA sect-or, secta-ri, secta-tus sum, to pursue. Active forms and passive usages are early. stabul-or, stabula-ri, stabula-tus sum, to stable. Active forms begin with VERGIL. tut-or, tuta-rl, tuta-tus sum, to protect. Active forms and passive usages are early and rare. 112 DEPONENTS. tumultu-or, tumultua-ri, tumultua-tus sum, to raise a riot. But PLAUTITS uses active forms ; and passive uses are occasional later. vag-or, vaga-rl, vaga-tus sum, to wander. Active forms belong to early Latin. vener-or, venera-ri, venera-tus sum, to reverence. But PLAUT. uses venero, venerem ; VEKO., HOB., and later writers show passive uses. 164. In the second conjugation : fate-or, fate-rl, fas-sus sum, to confess. cSn-fite-or, c5n-fite-rl, con-fes-sus sum, to confess. Both fateor and confiteor are used occasionally as passives by Cic. and later. lice-or, licS-rl, lici-tus sum, to bid (at a salt). mere-or, merg-ri, meri-tus sum, to deserve. Especially in the phrases mererl bene dS aliquo, to deserve well of any one. Otherwise the active is usual. misere-or, misere-rl, miseri-tus sum, to pity. In early Latin the active forms are found occasionally, e. g., LUCK, in., 881. pollice-or, pollic8-ri, pollici-tus sum, to promise. Occasionally used as a passive in post-classical Latin. re-or, rS-rl, ra-tus sum, to think. Pr. Part. Active is wanting. tue-or, tuS-rl, tui-tus (tutus' sum, to protect. In early Latin and occasionally later, a parallel form, tuor, tul, tuitus sum, occurs. For toitus usually tutatus. vere-or, verS-rl, veri-tus sum, to fear. 165- In the third conjugation : aplsc-or, apisc-i, ap-tus sum, to get. Simple verb is frequent in early and late Latin. Of the compounds, adipiscor, adiplsci, adeptus sum, is usually deponent in classical times, but occurs occasionally as a passive in SALL. and later writers. The compounds ind-, red-, are rare. am-plect-or, am-plect-I, am-plex-us sum, to twine round, embrace. So the compounds complector, circumplector. In early Latin active forms are occasionally found ; e. g., amplectitote, circumplecte (PLAUT.). com-min-lsc-ol, com-min-isc-i, com-men-tus sum, to think up, devise. OVID and later writers use commentus as a passive. experg-isc-or, (-reg-) ex-perg-Isc-I, ex-per-rSc-tus sum, to (right one's self tip) awake. fung-or, fung-I, func-tus sum, to discharge. This verb is used passively very rarely : TER., Ad. 508. LUCK, in., 968. Cic., Sest. 4,10. fru-or (frugv-), fru-I, fruc-tus (fru-i-tus) sum, to enjoy. The form fruitus is rare and late. DEPONEKTS. 113 gradi-or, grad-1, gres-sus sum, to step, ag-gredi-or, ag-gred-i, ag-gres-sus sum, to attack. Occasionally active forms of t-he fourth conjugation are found in early Latin. lab-or, lab-1, lap-sus sum, to glide. loqu-or, loqu-1, locu-tus sum, to speak. mori-or, mor-1, mortu-us sum, to die. Early Latin shows parallel forms of the fourth conjugation, as morlri, cmorirl. Fut. Part, moritiirus ; see 135, n., 3. nanc-Isc-or, nanc-lsc-1, nac-tus (nanc-tus) sum, to get. nasc-or (gna-), nasc-1, na-tus sum, to be bom. Put. Part, nasciturus. nlt-or (gnict- 1. nit-I, ni-sus (nlx-us) sum, (. to stay one's self on. from genii), ' nl-surus, ob-llv-lsc-or, ob-liv-isc-1, ob-11-tus sum, to forget. pac-isc-or, pac-isc-1, pac-tus sum (pepigl), to drive (a bargain). Occasionally active forms are found in early Latin ; in Cic. pactus is frequently used as a passive. See pango. pati-or, pat-I, pas-sus sum, to suffer. per-peti-or, per-pet-i, per-pes-sus sum, to endure to the end. pro-fic-isc-or, pro-fic-isc-i, pro-fec-tus sum, to (get forward) set out. ButPLAUT., MM. 1329, proficlSCO. quer-or, quer-i, ques-tus sum, to complain. sequ-or, sequ-I, secu-tus sum, to follow. ulc-isc-or, ulc-Isc-i, ul-tus sum, to avenge. Active forms are rare ; so once in ENNIUS. But SALL., LIVT, and later writers use the verb as a passive sometimes. ut-or, ut-i, u-sus sum, to use. PLAUT. shows the compound abusa as a passive (Asin. 196). veh-or, veh-I, vec-tus sum, to (wagon) ride. vesc-or, vesc-1, tofeed. 166- In the fourth conjugation : assenti-or, assenti-rl, assen-sus sum, to assent. Active forms are not uncommon in early Latin. Cic. uses the Pf . active forms fre- quently ; likewise later writers. com-peri-or, comperl-rl, to find out. Occasionally found (but rarely in classical Latin ; as, SALL., J., 45, 1 ; 108, 3) for comperio, comperlre. But experior, experirl, expertus sum, to try, is regularly deponent ; though Cic. and others use often the Pf. active forms. largi-or, largl-rl, largi-tus sum, to bestow. menti-or, menti-rl, menti-tus sum, to lie. The poets and later prose writers use this as a passive also. m6ti-or, mSti-ri, mSn-sus sum, to measure. Passive usage is common, especially in the compounds : dSmSnsus, climensus, emgnsus, permSnsus, remensus. 114 SEMI-DEPONENTS. 5rdi-or, ordl-rl, 6r-sus sum, to begin. orsus, and more commonly exorsus, are also found as passives. ori-or, ori-ri, or-tus sum, to arise. The Pr. Indie, is usually formal according to the third conjugation ; the Impf. Subjv. always orerer ; but the Fut. Part, is oriturus. The compounds follow the same usage except adorlrl, to rise up at, attack, which follows the fourth conjugation. parti-or, parti-rl, parti-tus sum, to share. Active forms and passive uses are found in early Latin, and sporadically in C'ic. and later. poti-or, potl-ri, potl-tus sum, to get possession of '. The Pr. Indie., Impf. Subjv., and occasionally other forms, are also found in early Latin and the poets, inflected according to the third conjugation ; so regularly after PLAUT. potitur, frequently poterStur, potergmur. puni-or, punl-rl, punl-tus sum, to punish. Occasionally in Cic. and late writers for punlre. sorti-or, sortl-rl, sortl-tus sum, to cast lots. Active occasionally in early Latin, and passive uses later of the Pf . Participle. SEMI-DEPONENTS. 167. i. A few verbs form the Perfect forms only as deponents : aude-5, aude-re, au-sussum, to dare. On the aorist forms ausim, etc., see 131, 4, b. fld-o, fld-ere, fi-sus sum, to trust. gaude-o, gaudS-re, gav-lsus sum, to rejoice. sole-o, sole-re, sol-itus sum, to be ivont. The Pf. active is found in early Latin ; but rarely. 2. The reverse usage is found in : re-vert-or, re-vert-I, re-vert-I, to turn back. So also dgverti, but without Pf. Part. Keversus is also used actively, bnt rever- sus sum for revertl is post-classic. See also assentior, etc., 166. NOTES.— 1. Some active verbs have a Perfect Participle passive with active mean- ing, as : cenatus, one who has dined, from c<5nare, to dine ; pransus, having break- fasted, from prandeo, / breakfast ; potus, drunken, from pot5, / drink ; iuratus, having taken the oath, sworn., from iur5, 1 swear ; coniuratus, a conspirator, from coniuro, I conspire. Many such are used purely as Adjectives: consideratus, cir- cumspect, from cOnsldero ; cautus, wary, from caved, I beware. 2. The Perfect Participle of many deponent Verbs has both active and passive mean- ing : adeptus (adiplscor\ having acquired, or being acquired ; comitatus (comitor, I accompany) ; effatus (effor, I speak out) ; expertus (experior, I try) ; exsecratus (exsecror, I curse) ; imitatus (imitor, I copy) ; meritus (mereor, I deserve) ; opl- natus, necopinatus (opinor, / think) ; pactus fpaciscor, / contract) ; partitus (partior, / distribute) ; sortitus (sortior, least lots) ; tueor, I protect ; tutus, safe. For others, see the list of deponents. IRREGULAR VERBS. 115 IRREGULAR VERBS. 168. Irregular in the formation of the tense-stems : 1. Nine verbs of the third conjugation, which have, in spite of the short stem-syllable, the Pf. in -si, viz. : clepo, Ijllch ; rego, I keep right ; tego, leaver in ; coquo, I bake ; and the com- pounds of lego, I pick-up ; lacio, I lure ; specie, I spy (-Iig5, -licio, -spicio) ; divide, I part ; quatio, I shake. See 147, 2. Prom lego, however, only dlligS, Hove ; intellego, / understand ; and neglegS, neglect, are irregular. The other compounds are regular. See 147, 2. 2. Five verbs of the third conjugation, which, in spite of long stem- syllable, have the Pf . in -I, viz. : Iamb5 / lick ; cudo, / hammer ; sldS, / sit (160, 1) ; strldeO, / whistle (159) ; vertO, / turn (160, 1). 3. Assimilation between bs and ms occurs in the Pf. and Sup. of iube-S, I order. See 147, 1. prem-o (-prim-5), I press. See 147, 2. 4. Special irregularities occur in : bib-5, I drink. 154, 2. mane-5, /remain. 147, 1. ni5ti-or, I measure. 166. met-5, I mow. 142, 3. mori-or, I die. 165. rauci-o, lam hoarse. 150, 2. re-or, I think. 164. 5. Formed from different tense-stems, are the tenses of fer-5, I bear. 171. toll-o, I lift. 155. 169. Irregular in the conjugation of the Present-stem i 1 . ori-or, ori-ri, or-tus sum, to arise. See 166. % 2. I-re, to go. The stem is i, which, before a, 0, u, becomes e, PRIN. PARTS : e5, Ire, IvI (il), itum. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. / go. I be going. PBES. So. — i. e-5, PL. — i-nius, SG. — ea-m, PL. — ea-mus, 2. I-s, i-tis, ea-s, ea-tis, 3. i-t, eu-nt. ea-t, ea-nt, Il6 IKREQULAE VERBS. IMPF. I-ba-m, I went. 1-re-m, / were going. FUT. i-b-o, I shall go. PEBF. I-v-i (i-1), / have gone. 1-v-eri-m (i-eri-m). PLUPP. I-v-era-m (i-era-m), / had gone. I-v-isse-m (i-isse-m, 1-sse-m). FUT.PF. i-v-er-o (i-er-5), I shall have gone. IMPERATIVE. So. — 2. I, go thou. i-to, thou shall go. 3. - i-to, he shall go. PL. — 2. 1-te, go ye. I-t5te, ye shall go. 3. eu-nto, they shall go. INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES. PRE#. l-re. PBES. i6-ns (Gr. eu-nt-is). PUT. i-tur-um esse. PUT. i-tur-us. PEBF. i-v-isse (i-sse). GERUND. SUPINE. eu-ncl-l, etc. i-tum, to go. REMARKS. — i. Like the simple verb are inflected most of the com- pounds, except in the Perfect system, where syncope regularly takes place (see 131, 2). V6n-eo, / am for sale, and per-eS, / perish, serve as passives to vSn-do, / sell, and per-do, / destroy, whose regular passives occur only in the forms v5nditus, vSndendus, and perditus (but see Hon., Sat. , ii. 6, 59). Amb-io, I solicit, follows the fourth conjugation through- out, but in post-Ciceronian writers (LivY, TAC., PLIN. Mix.) shows occa- sional forms like those of e5. Some compounds show occasionally Fut. in -earn after the time of SENECA. 2. The passive of the simple verb is found only in the impersonal forms Itur, Ibatur, itum est, Irl (in combination with the Supine). But compounds with transitive force are conjugated regularly ; so, prae- ter-e5 forms praeter-eor, -iris, Itur, -imur, -iminl, -euntur, ibar, etc., -itus sum, eram, ero, -euntor, -Itor, -in, -eundus. 3. quire, to be able ; nequlre, to be unable. 170. (a) que-5, I am able, is found in the following forms, of which those in parenthesis are unclassical, occurring jn early and late Latin and the poets ; CAESAR uses no form of queo. PR. INDIC. queS, (quis), (quit), qulmus, (quitis), queunt. PR. SUBJV. queam, queas, queat, queamus, queatis, queant. IMPP. (quibam), (quirem). FUT. (quibo). PF. quivi, etc.; qulverim, etc. PLUPF. quiveram, etc.; quivissem, etc. FUT. PP. quivers, etc. PR. INF. quire. PF. qulvisse. PART, quigns. (b) neque-6, / am unable, has the same forms, all of which seem to be classic excepting the Future Indicative, which is not cited. i IREEGULAR VERBS. 117 4. fer-re, to bear. 171. The endings beginning with t, s, and r are added directly to the root (132). Some parts are supplied by tul- (tol-, tla-). PBIN. PABTS : fero, ferre, tuli, latum. ACTIVE. INDICATIVE. PRES. / bear. So. — i. fer-5, PL. — fer-i-mus, 2. fer-s, fer-tis, 3. fer-t, fer-u-nt. IMPP. ferS-ba-m, / was bearing. FUT. fera-m, / shall bear. PEBF. tul-I, / have borne. PLUPF. tul-era-m. FUT. PP. tul-er-o. SUBJUNCTIVE. / be bearing. SG.— fera-m, PL.— fera-mua, fera-s, fera-tis, fera-t, fera-nt. fer-re-m, I icere bearing. tul-eri-m. tul-isse-m. SG. — 2. fer, PL. — 2. fer-te, 3- IMPERATIVE. bear thou. bear ye. fer-t5, fer-to, fer-tote, feru-nto, thou shalt bear, he shall bear, ye shall bear, they shall bear. INFINITIVE. PRES. fer-re. FUT. la-tur-um esse. PERF. tul-isse. GERUND, fere-nd-l, etc. PASSIVE. PRES. INDICATIVE. I am borne. SG. — i. fer-o-r, PL. — feri-mur, PARTICIPLES. PRES. ferS-ns, bearing. PUT. la-tur-us. SUPINE, la-torn (t(o)la-tum). SUBJUNCTIVE. / be borne. SG.— fera-r, PL. — fera-mur, 2. fer-ris, feri-minl, fera-ris, f era-mini, 3. fer-tur, feru-ntur. fera-tur, fera-ntur. IMPF. fere-ba-r. fer-re-r. FUT. fera-r. PERF. la-tus sum. la-tus sim. PLUPF. la-tus eram. la-tus essem. FUT. PF. IS-tus ero. Il8 IRREGULAR VERBS. IMPERATIVE. SG. — 2. fer-re, be thou borne. fer-tor, thou shalt be borne 3. fer-tor, he shall be borne. PL. — 2. feri-mini, be ye borne. 3. feru-ntor, they shall be borne INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE. PRES. fer-rl, to be borne. PERF. la-t-us, -a, -urn, borne. Fur. la-turn W. GERUNDIVE. PERF. la-turn esse, to have been borne. fere-nd-us. COMPOUNDS. af-fer-6, af-fer-re, at-tul-I, al-la-tum, to bear to. au-fer-6, au-fer-re, abs-tul-I, ab-la-tum, to bear away. c6n-fer-5, c5n-fer-re, con-tul-1. col-la-tum, to collect. dif-fer-5, dif-fer-re, dis-tul-I, dl-la-tum, to put off. ef-fer-5, ef-fer-re, ex-tul-I, e-la-tum, to carry out. of-fer-o, of-fer-re, ob-tul-I, ob-la-tum, to offer. NOTES.— 1. The Pf. tull was originally reduplicated te-tull. See 134, iii., 155. Traces of this are seen in rettttll. 2. Suf-fero, / undergo, has the Pf . sus-tin-ul (sus-tul-I, sub-la-tum, being appropriated to toll-5). (155.) 5. ed-ere, to eat. 172. In certain forms the endings beginning with s, t, and r are added directly to the root (132) ; d before s (r) is dropped or assimilated (as ss), and before t becomes s. PBIN. PARTS : ed5, edere (6sse), 6dl, gsurn. ACTIVE. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. / eat. I be eating. So. — i. ed-5, PL. — edi-rnus, SG. — eda-m, PL. — eda-mus, 2. edi-s, e-s, edi-tis, es-tis, eda-s, eda-tis, 3. edi-t, e-st, edu-nt. eda-t, eda-nt. IMPP. ede-ba-m, / ate. ede-re-m, es-se-m, / were eating FUT. eda-m. PBRF. 6d-I. ed-eri-m. PLUFF. ed-era-m. ed-isse-m. FUT. PF. ed-er-o. IRREGULAR VERRS. IMPERATIVE. SG. — 2. ede, 5s, PL. — 2. edi-te, es-te, 3- eat thou. eat ye. edi-to, Ss-to, edi-to, gs-to, edi-tote, es-tote, edu-nto, PARTICIPLE. PBES. (edS-ns). FUT. gs-ur-us. thou shalt eat. he shall eat. ye shall eat. they shall eat INFINITIVE. PRES. ede-re, gs-se, to eat. FUT. es-ur-um esse. PEKP. gd-isse. GERUND. SUPINE. ede-nd-i, etc. es-uin, es-u. PASSIVE. In the passive voice the only peculiarities are as follows: Pr. Indie. Sing. Third, editur and gstur. Impf. Subjv. Sing. Third, edergtur and gssgtur. The Pf. Part, is gsus and the Gerundive edendus. NOTE.— In the Pr. Subjv. Active, early Latin shows edim, edis, edit, cdimus, editis, edint. Also gssum and gssu in the Sup., gssurus in the Fut. Part. Come- dere also shows coinestus for comesus. 6. fi-eri, to become. 173. Fl-5 is conjugated in the Present, Imperfect, and Future, according to the fourth conjugation, but in the Subjunctive Imperfect and in the Infinitive the stem is increased by e; thus, fi-e-rem, I were becoming ; fi-e-n, to become. In these forms the i is short, but else- where it is long even before another vowel. The Infinitive ends in -rl, and the whole Verb in the Present-stem is treated as the Passive to faci5, / make. The rest of the Passive is formed regularly from facio. PBIN. PARTS : fl5, fieri, factus sum. ACTIVE. faciS, / make. faciebam, I made. faciam, / shall make. fScI. fgceram. PBES. IMPF. FUT. PEKP. PLUPF. FUT. Pr. fgcero. etc. IMPERATIVE. (fl), (fl-t6). (fi-te). PASSIVE. INDIC. fl6, 1 am made, I become. fls, fit (fimus, fltis), fiunt. flgbam, / ivas made, I became. flam, / shall be made (become). factus sum. factus cram. factus er5. SUBJV. flam, fias, fiat, etc. fierem, fiergs, etc. INFINITIVE. PKES. fieri. PERF. factum esse, to have become, FUT. futurum esse or fore. FUT. Pr. factum fore. I2O IRREGULAR VERBS. NOTES. — 1. Occasionally in early Latin the form fiere is found for the Infinitive, which indicates that the verb was originally active. The forms fieri and fierem are very common in early Latin, along with the normal forms. Of the forms hi parenthe- sis fimus and fitis do not certainly occur, and the Imperative forms are early. Pas- sive forms of fio are very rare ; never in PLAUTUS or TERENCE. 2. The compounds of facio with Prepositions change the a of the stem into i, and form the Passive in classical Latin regularly from the same stem : perficiS, / ackiere, Pass, perficior ; interficio, Pass, interficior, lam destroyed. But interfleri, c5n- flerent, confieri, and several other forms are found in early Latin, and occasionally in classical times. When compounded with words other than prepositions, facio retains its a, and uses fi5 as its Passive : patefacio, Hay open, Pass. patefi5; calefacio, I warm, Pass, calefio. For the accent, see 15, 2, K. 2. 174. 7. vel-le, to ~be willing. nolle, to be unwilling ; malle, to be willing rather. PHIN. PARTS : vo!5, velle, volul ; no!5, nolle, nolul ; malo, malle, malui. INDICATIVE. PRES. vo!5, vis, vult, volurnus, vultis, volunt. nolo, non vis, noil volt, nolumus, non vultis, nolunt. malo, mavis, mavult, malumus, mavultis, malunt. IMPF. volebam, nolebam, malebain. PUT. volanx, voles, etc. nolam, noles, etc. malain, males, etc. PBKF. volul, nolui, malul, etc. FLUFF. volueram, nolueram, malueram, etc, PUT. PF. voluero, noluero, maluero, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRES. velim, veils, velit, vellmus, velltis, velint. nolim, noils, nolit, nollmus, nolltis, nolint. malim, malls, malit, malimus, malitis, malint. IMPF. vellem, nollem, uiallem. PEKF. voluerim, noluerim, maluerim, etc. PLUPF. voluissem, nolnissem, maluissem, etc. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 121 IMPV. INF. PR. velle, PF. voluisse, PART, volens, SG. — noil, nollto. PL. — nolite, nolitote, noluntS. nolle, malle. noluisse, maluisse. nolens. NOTES.— 1. To the time of CICERO, and occasionally later, volt, voltis, are employed for vult, vultis. In familiar language si vis, Si vultis, were contracted to sis, sultis ; vis was further combined with -ne into vin. 2. Nolo is a contraction of nevolo (= non volo), and in early Latin we find, along with the forms given above, also nevis, nevolt ; also occaBionally we find non veils, non velit, non velint, non vellem, for noils, etc. ; but the feeling is slightly different. 3. Malo = ma volo, from magdnage, magis)-volo. Frequently in PLAUT., but rarely in TER., we find mavolo, mavolunt, mavolet, mavelim, -Is, -it, mavellem, instead of maid, malim, malls, etc. 175. DEFECTIVE VERBS. i . aid, / say aye. 3. ait, PL. — 3. aiunt. 3. aiant. INDIC. PRES. SG. — I. aio, 2. ais, IMFF. aiebam, etc. PERF. 3- ai*- SUBJV. PRES. SG. — 2. aias, 3. aiat, PART, aiens (as adj.), affirmative. IMPV. al. NOTE.— In early Latin ain (= aisne ?) was scanned often as a monosyllable ; and in the Impf ., aibam, albas, aibat, aibant were frequently employed along with the normal forms. The Irnpv. is rare, and found only in early Latin. Pr. Subjv. aiam is emended into PL., Ep., 281. 2. inquam, / say, quoth I. INDIC. PHES. So. — i. inquam, 2. inquis, 3. inquit. PL. — i. inquimus, 2. inquitis, 3. inquiont. IMPF. SG. — 3. inquiSbat. FUT. SG. — 2. inquies, 3. inquiet. PERF. SG. — i. inquil, 2. inquistl, 3. inquit. IMPV. inque, iuquito. 3. fa-ri, to speak. INDIC. PRES. f&tue. FUT. fabor, ffibitur. PERF. Stus sum, etc. IMPV. fare. PART. PRES. fans, fantis, fantl, fantem. GER. fandl, fando. SUP. fatu. NOTE. — In addition to these, compounds show also PRES. : -faris, -famur, -faminl, -fantur ; IMPF. : -fabar, -fabantur ; PUT. : -fabere, -fabimur ; PABT. : -fante and others. These forma, as well as the uncompounded forms, though occasionally found in prose, are peculiar to the poets until post- Augustan times. The Pf . Part, is sometimes used passively ; so especially fatum,/«te ; effatus, designated. 122 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 4. have-re (ave-re), salve-re. IMPV. have, salve, salvebis, hail thou ! haveto, salveto. havete, salvete, hail ye ! INF. havgre, salvere. Corresponding to these are the forms of valere, viz. : val6, valete, valere, farewell. 5. coepi, meminl, odi, novl. In use only in the Perfect-stem are coepi, / have begun, which serves as a Perfect to iucipio, and memini, / remember, 5dl, / hate, n5vl (from nosco, see 131, 3, 140), I know, am aware, consuevi (from consuesc5), 1 am wont, which have the force of Presents. a. INDIC. coepi, / have begun. SUBJV. coeperim. coeperam. coepissem. coeperO. INF. coepisse, to have begun. NOTE.— Early Latin shows coepio, coepias, coepiat, coepiam, coepere, coeperet. Future Participle coepturus is Post- Augustan. IncSpI is ante-classical. Passive forms coeptus sum, etc., occur with the same meaning in combination with a Passive Infinitive. See 423, N. 3. b. INDIC. memini, I remember. SUBJV. meminerim. memineram. meniinisseni. meminerS. INF. meminisse, to remember. IMPV. So. — memento. PL. — mementote. c. INDIC. Odi, I hate, SUBJV. Sderim. oderam. odissem. odero. INF. Sdisse, to hate. FUT. PAKT. osurus. NOTE.— Occasionally in early Latin, the poets, and later prose, deponent forms of the Perfect are found, 6sus sum, etc. For the Passive the phrase odi5 esse is used. d. INDIC. n5vl. SUBJV. nSverim (nSrim). noveram ( noram). novissem (nossem). noverS (n5r5). INF. nSvisse (n5sse) to know. 6. cedo, quaeso. Other defective forms are : SG. — cedo, give ! (old Impv.) PL. — cette. INDIC. PBES. quaes5, please (i. e., I seek, beg), quaesumus. NOTE.— Other forms of quaeso are found occasionally in early Latin, and sporadi- cally in Cic., SAIX., and later ; the Pf. forms have been attached to quaerere, 137, c. FOKMATION OF WORDS. 123 FORMATION OF WORDS. 176. By the formation of words is meant the way in which stems are made of roots, new stems of old, and in which words are compounded. 177. All roots of the Latin language are probably mono- syllabic. * They can be ascertained only by scientific analysis. The difference between Root and Stem has been set forth in 25, NN. Sometimes the Stem is the same as the Boot ; £0 especially in the Root Verbs (132). But it is usually different. 178. Words are either simple or compound. A simple word is one that is formed from a single root : sol, sun; sta-re, stand, stay. A compound word is one that is made up of two or more roots : sdl-stiti-um, sun-staying, solstice. A.— Simple Words. 179. Simple words are partly primitive, partly derivative or secondary. 1. Primitive words come from the root, and as this usually appears in the simplest form of the verb-stem, primitive words are called verbals. Examples are the root- verbal forms (134, n., 132, 135, i.), some substantives of the third declension, as dux (duc-s), leader, root due (see 183, i), many substantives of the first, second, and fourth declensions, as : scrlb-a (scrflbo, / write), scribe. 2. Derivative words are formed from a noun-stem ; hence called denominatives : vetus-tas, age, from vetes- (N. vetus), old. NOTE.— Denominative verbs include many verbs which cannot definitely be referred to any substantive ; such as many frequentatives and intensives. In its narrower sig- nification the term refers to the special class of verbs made from substantives in use. 180. Substantives are generally formed by means of a suf- fix. A suffix is an addition to a stem, and serves to define its meaning or show its relations. So from the verbal stem scrlb- (scrlbo, I write) comes scrip-tor, writ-er; scrlp-tio(n), writ-ing. * The theory of monosyllabic roots is adopted here as being somewhat more con- venient than the theory of polysyllabic roots, now held by some important scholars. Of course it will be understood that the actual existence of mere roots can be assumed only for a very early period in the development of language, long before the indepen- dent existence of Latin. 124 FORMATION OF WORDS. Suffixes are either primary or secondary. A primary suffix is one added to a root (or verb stem) to form primitive words. A secondary suffix is one used in the formation of derivative words. Thus, -tor in scrip-tor is a primary suffix ; -tas in vetus-tas is secondary. NOTES.— 1. By the fading out of the difference between primary and secondary suf- fixes, primary suffixes come to be used sometimes to form secondary derivatives. 2. Consonant stems before consonant suffixes undergo the usual changes (9). So scrlb-tor becomes scrip-tor ; rgg-s becomes re's. Stems are sometimes extended by a vowel, usually i, less often u, to facilitate pronunciation : val-i-dus, strong ; dOC- u-mentum, proof; sometimes they change the stem vowel : teg, cort r ; tog-a, toga ; tug-urium, hut. 3. Vowel stems lengthen the final vowel : acu-, sharpen ; acu-men, sharp part, point. The final vowel often disappears before the suffix : opta-, choose ; opt-io, choice. 181. FORMATION OF SUBSTANTIVES. The suffixes, as applied to various roots, have often special func- tions, and form words of definite meaning. The most important are as follows : 1. Agency is indicated by -tor, -trie (N. tor (?».), trtx (/.)): ama-tor, lover; vic-trix, con- qneress ; occasionally -ter (N. ter, G. -tri) : ar-bi-ter (= ad + ba, step), umpire; -on (N. 6, G. onis) : com-bib-o (fellow-drinker), boon compan- ion; occasionally -o, -a (N. -us, -a) : serv-os, slave; scrib-a, scribe; -onOf -ona (N. onu-s, -ona) : col-onu-s, settler ; -(i)t (N. es, G. itis) : mil-es, soldier, and a few others. 2. Action, Activity, and Event are indicated by a. -tu (N. tu-s, su-s, G. -us) : ad-ven-tus, arrival ; -tri-na (N. trlna) : doc-trlna, instruction; -ln-a (N. -Ina) : rap-ina, rapine; -men (N. men, G. min-is) : ag-men, train; -mento (N. mentum) : tor-mentu-m, torture; -e-la (ella) : loqu-ela, speech; quer-Sla, complaint; -cinio (N. -u-m) : latro-ciniu-m, highway robbery ; -monio, -rnonia (N. monia, moniu-m) : queri-mOnia, complaint ; testi-moniu-m, testimony. b. Abstracts. Masculine : -5s- (N. -or, G. -or-is) : ang-or, anguish. Feminine : -on (N. d5, g5, G. in-is) : ima-g5, image; cup-i-do, desire; -ia : audac-ia, boldness ; -ion (N. i5) : leg-io, legion; -tin : avari-tia, avarice; collateral are some with Nom. in -ties, as duri-tiSs, hard- ness; -tion (N. ti6, sio) : amb-i-tio, ambition ; con-ftl-sio, confusion; -tat (N. tas) : aequali-tas, equality; -tura : pic-tura, painting; -tut- (N. tus, sus): iuven-tus, youth; -tu (-su) (N. tu-s, su-s), s6n-sus, perception; -tudon (N. tud-o, G. -inis): aegri-tudo, sickness of heart. Neuter: -tio (N. tiu-m) : servi-tiu-m, bondage. 3. An Artisan or Tradesman is indicated by -ario (N. ariu-s) : argent-ariu-s, money changer. FORMATION OF WORDS. 125 4. The Trade is indicated by -aria : argent-aria, silver mine, bank. 5. The Locality of the work (or trade) is indicated by -firio (N. ariu-m) : semin-ariu-m, seed-plot ; -dnio (N. 5niu-m) : full- onium, fuller's shop; -Ina : offic-ma, workshop; -cro, -eulo (N. -cru-ra, •culu-m) : lava-cru-m, bath ; -trino, -trlna (N. trina, trinu-m) : su- trlna, shoemaker's shop ; pis-trinu-m, mill. 6. Instrument and Means are indicated by -bro, -bra, (N". bra, bru-m) : ll-bra, balance, ; crl-brum, sieve; -cro, -culo (N. cru-m, culu-m) : ba-culu-m, walking stick; -lo, -la (N. -la, -lu-m) : pi-la, pillar ; t6-lu-m, weapon; -ulo, -ula (N. ulu-s, ula, ulu-m) : cap-ulu-s, handle; r6g-ula, rule; cing-ulu-m, girdle; -mento (N. mentu-m) : al-i-mentu-m, nourishment ; -fro, -tra (N. tra, tru-m) : fenes-tra, window ; ara-tru-m, plough. 7. Relationship is indicated by -ter (N. ter, G. tr-is) : pa-ier, father; ma-ter, mother. 8. Condition or Relation by -Ina : dlscipl-ina, discipline; medic-Ina, medicine. g. Function is indicated by -tura (sura) : cul-tura, cultivation. 10. Office is indicated by -atu (N". atus, G. atus) : consul-atus, consulship; -tura (-surd) : dicta-tura, dictatorship. 11. Dense Growths are indicated by -eto (N. gtu-m) : murt-6tu-m, myrtle grove; -to (N. tu-m) : virgul- tu-m, brushwood. 12. Diminutives are indicated by -lo, -la (N. lu-s, etc.), before which a liquid is assimilated (9, 3) : (ager), agel-lu-s, little field ; (tabul-a), tabel-la, tablet ; (coron-a), corol-la, chaplet ; Catul-lu-s (= Caton-lu-s) ; homul-lu-s (= homon-lu-s), manikin; -olo, -ulo : olo after e, i, v, otherwise -ulo (N. olu-s, ola, ulu-s, ula) : (alve-us), alve-olu-s, little hollow ; (ffli-a), fili-ola, little daughter ; (valv-a), valv-olae, pod (little flaps); (circu-s), circ-ulu-s, little ring, -culo, -cula (N. culu-s, etc.), after e, i, u, and consonant stems : (sp5s), spS-cula, slight hope; (amni-s), amni-culu-s, streamlet; (versu-s), versi-culu-s, versicle; (homo, homin-), homun-culu-s, manikin ; (flos), flos-culu-s, floweret ; (cor, cord-), cor-culu-m, dear heart. NOTE.— Diminutives have, as a rule, the gender of their primitives. Exceptions are sometimes due to difference in signification. 126 FORMATION OF WORDS. 182. FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES. The significance of the most important adjective suffixes, which are often identical with the substantive suffixes, are as follows : 1. Action is indicated by -bundo, -bunda : cuncta-bundu-s, lingering. Repeated action by -ulo, -ula : cred-ulu-s, quick to believe; quer-ulu-s, complaining. Pas- sive action is indicated by -bili ; ama-bili-s, lovable; vend-i-bili-s, to be sold. 2. Capacity and Inclination are indicated by -cundo, -cunda : fa-cundu-s, of ready speech ; verS-ctmdu-a, modest. Passive Capacity by -Hi : ag-ili-s, readily moved, quick ; doc-ili-s, teachable. The Capacity and Resulting Condition by -till : duc-tili-s, ductile ; fic-tili-s, capable of being moulded, of clay. 3. Tendency is indicated by -aci (N. ax) : aud-ax, bold ; rap-ax, greedy. 4. Likeness and Composition or Material are indicated by -aceo, -acea : arundin-aceu-s, reedy ; cret-aceu-s, chalky; -icio : i.ater-iciu-s, made of brick ; -no, -na : acer-nu-s, of maple ; -neo9 -nea : ae-neu-s, brazen. 5. Belonging to is indicated by -*o, -id : imperator-iu-s, belonging to a general ; -icio, -icia : aedil-iciu-s, belonging to an cedile; -ano, -ana : hum-anu-s, human ; urb-anu-s, urbane, city. 6. Appurtenance and Medium are indicated by -ticOf -tica : aqua-ticu-s, aquatic ; -till- : aqua-tili-s, aquatic ; pluma-tili-s, (embroidered) like feathers. 7. Origin is indicated by -io, -ia : Cornel-ia (I6x), Corinth-iu-s ; -ano, -ana, -Ino, -Ina : Rom-ann-s. Lat-mu-s. 8. Time is indicated by -tino, -tina : cras-tinu-s, of to-morrow; -terno, -terna : hes- ternu-s, of yesterday; -urno, -urna : noct-urnu-s, by night ; -tino, -tina : matii-tinu-s, of early morning. 9. Locality, where, whence, is indicated by -ia : Gall-ia, Gaul ; -tino : intes-tlnu-s, inner, intestine; -ensi : circ-Snsi-s, from the circus ; Sicili-ensi-s, Sicilian ; -ati (N. -as) : cui- as, of what country ? FORMATION OF WORDS. I2/ 10. Fulness is indicated by -oso, -osa : anim-6su-s, full of spirit ; verb-5sti-s, wordy ; -lento, tenta : sanguin-o-lentu-s, bloody ; op-u-lentu-s, with abundant means. 11. Descent and Relationship are indicated in Latin mainly by Greek adjectives, made by the addition of Greek suffixes to proper names. These suffixes are M. -ides (G. idae), F. -is (G. idis), from Nominatives in us, or, os, and s preceded by a consonant ; M. -ides (G. Idae), F. -eis (G. eidis), from Nominatives in -eus ; M. -ades (G. adae), F. -eis (G. Sidis), from Nominatives in as (G. ae) and -6s (G. -ae) ; M. -iades (G. iadae), F. -ias (G. iadis). from Nominatives in ius, 6s, on, o ; F. -I ne, from Nom- inatives in -us and -eus ; F. -idne, from Nominatives in ius : (Tantalus) Tantal-ides, son of Tantalus ; Tantal-is, daughter of Tantalus ; (Pelops) Pelopides ; (Th6s-eus) Thes-ides, Th6sSis ; (Aeneas) Aene-ades (Aeneadae also) ; (Laertes) Laert-iades ; (Neptunus) Neptiin-In5 ; (Acrisius) Acrisione", etc. 12. Diminutive adjectives are formed by the same suffixes as diminutive substantives (181, 12) : albus, white, albu-lus, whitish ; miser, wretched, mis-ellus, poor (little) ; Seer, sharp, acri-culu-s, somewhat sharp. 183. SUBSTANTIVES WITHOUT SUFFIXES. (Root Substantives.) A few substantives are formed from roots without a suffix : 1. With weak root : duc-s (dux), leader, from root due, lead ; nec-s (nex), killing, from root nee, kill. 2. With strong root : luc-s (lux), light, from root Itic, light ; r6g-s (rex), king, from root reg, rule. 3. With reduplication : car-cer, jail ; mar-mor, marble ; mur-inur, murmur. THE SUFFIXES IN DETAIL. 184 Vowels. -o, -a (N. u-s, a, u-m). Primary and secondary adjectives, and primary substantives. The primary adjectives resemble somewhat active participles in meaning ; fer-u-s, wild ; vag-u-s, wandering. Sec- ondary are especially adjectives in -orus, as dec-oru-s, graceful, from decor, grace, and many others. Masculine substantives in -u-s are often nouns of agency, sometimes nomina actionis and concretes therefrom : coqu-o-s, cook ; rog-u-s, pyre. Those in -a (a) are regularly nomina agen- tis, especially in composition ; scrlb-a, scribe ; agri-cola, husbandman (land-tiller). Feminines are in -o (which are principally names of trees : pir-us, pear tree) and in -a : lup-a, she-wolf, as well as lup-u-s. Neuters are those in -u-m, especially names of fruits : pir-u-m, pear. 128 FORMATION OF WORDS. -i (N. i-s, e). Substantives : M . orb-i-s, circle ; pisc-i-s, fsh, etc. ; F. av-i-s, bird ; nav-i-s, ship ; N. mar-e, sea ; conclav-e, room. Adjec- tives : dnlc-i-s, sweet ; turp-i-s, ugly. NOTE.— In adjectives especially, i is often weakened from -o, as inermis and iner- mus, etc. Sometimes in substantives the Norn, shows es instead of is, as caedes and caedis, etc. -io, -ia (X. iu-s, ia, iu-m). — i. This is the principal secondary suf- fix, and is found iu many combinations ; but it is also found as prim- ary in substantives : M. gen-iu-s, genius ; glad-iu-s, sword ; F. pluv-ia, rain; tib-ia, fife; N. fol-iu-m, leaf; od-iu-m, hate; and in adjectives ex-im-iu-s, pre-eminent (taken out) ; sauc-iu-s, wounded, pluv-iu-s, rainy. 2. The suffix occurs as secondary in the forms -eio (-aeo\ -io, eo, io, in a large number of Gentile names : Flav-Siu-s, Flav-iu-s ; Liic-eiu-s, Luc- Iu-s, Luc-iu-s ; similar to these are those in ed-iu-s, id-iu-s, id-iu-s, -61-iu-s, fl-iu-s, as Luc-id-iu-s, Corn-el-iu-s, Luc-fl-iu-s. Also in some adjectives of material in eu-s, as aur-eu-s, golden ; ferr-eu-s, iron. It occurs, moreover, in many compound adjective and substantive endings, to be discussed later, and in many abstract substantives in -antia, -entia, as abund- ant-ia, abundance ; sci-ent-ia, knowledge, etc. NOTE. — Instead of -ia, we find -ea in a few words : cav-ea, cage ; cochl-ea, snail. -u (N. u-s, u). M. arc-u-s, bate ; curr-u-s, chariot ; F. ac-u-s, needle ; man-u-s, hand; X. gel-u, frost; gen-u, knee. Secondary is socr-u-s, mother-in-law. This suffix is found occasionally in adjectives com- pounded with manus, as centi-manus, hundred-handed ; also in the form •ui in a few adjectives, as ten-ui-s, thin. NOTE. — The suffix -o often alternates with -u. -no, -ua (N. uo-s, ua, uo-m). Primary and secondary substantives and adjectives. Primary : M. eq-uo-s, horse ; F. al-vo-s, belly ; N. ai-vo-m, field ; par-vo-s, small. Secondary : M. patr-uo-p, uncle; cer-vo-s, stag ; F. ian-ua, gate ; cern-uo-s, stooping ; aesti-vo-s, of the summer. NOTE.— Ivo-S is found in voc-lVO-S (vacuos), rediv-lvo-S, etc. -vo is weakened to -vi in pel-vi-S, basin. 185. Suffixes with Gutturals. 1. -co, -en (N. cu-s, ca, cu-m). This forms both adjectives and substantives, but is usually secondary. As primary it is found in : io-cu-s, jest ; lo-cu-s, place ; as secondary in : medi-cu-s, physician ; ped- i-ca, fetter. Adjectives are primary : cas-cu-s, very old ; or secondary : civi-cu-s, civic. 2. -aco, -aca (N. acu-s, aca, acu-m). Primary in clo-aca, sewer; secondary in ver-b8n-aca, vervain, and in adjectives, as mer-acu-s, pure. FORMATION OF WORDS. I2Q 3. -tco, -lea (N. icu-s, lea, Icu-m). In substantives, such as : M. umbil-icu-s, navel ; F. lect-ica, litter ; urt-Ica, nettle. In adjectives, as : am-lcu-s, friendly, etc. 4. -uco, -uca (N. ficu-s, uca, ucu-m). Primary in the adjectives : cad-ucu-s, tottering ; mand-ucu-s, voracious ; secondary in alb-ucu-s, as- phodel ; and in substantives 'n -uca, as er-uca, caterpillar ; verr-uca, wart. NOTE.— Similar is the secondary suffix -inquo in long-inquo-s, distant; pro- pinquo-s, near. 5. -de (N. ax) forms substantives and adjectives ; the latter ex- pressing inclination. Primary : aud-ax, bold ; fug-ax, fleeing. Second- ary : F. forn-ax, furnace ; Hm-ax, snail ; vSr-ax, truthful. 6. -ec (N. ex) is found in verv-6x, wether. 7. -ic (N. ex) forms a number of substantives that are mainly mas- culine, except names of plants and trees. Primary : M. ap-ex, point ; cort-ex, baric ; F. il-ex, holm-oak. Secondary : F. imbr-ex, gutter-tile. 8. -ic (N. Ix) forms substantives and adjectives. Primary : F. rad- ix, root ; fgl-ix, happy. Secondary : corn-lx, crow, and feminines in -trlx. 9. -be (N. ox) is found in the substantive eel-ox, yacht, and in a number of adjectives : atr-ox, ferocious. 10. -dceo, -acea (N. aceu-s, acea, aceu-m), forms adjectives of material or likeness : cret-aceu-s, chalk-like. NOTE. — Notice also the suffix -ac-io, especially in proper names : V5r-acia. 11. -ic-eo, -ic-io (N. iceu-s, etc., iciu-s, etc.), form adjectives in- dicating material, the latter suffix also some indicating relation : palm- iceu-s, of palms ; tribun-iciu-s, proceeding from a tribune. 12. -Ic-io (X. iciu-s, etc.) is found in nov-lciu-s, new, and in words of participial meaning coming from forms in -to, as advent-Iciu-s, stranger. 13. -uc-eof -uc-io, occurs in pann-uceu-s or pann-uciu-s. 14. -ci-no and ci-n'-io occur (perhaps) in vati-cinu-s, prophetic, and in some secondary neuter substantives, which denote action or event, as latro-ciniu-m, robbery.. 15. -cro, -cri, -do, -culo (N. cer, sris, elu-m, culu-m) are found in some adjectives with participial force, and in a few neuter substan- tives indicating, instrument or locality ; as ala-cer, quick ; medio-cris, mediocre ; perl-clum (-culu-m), danger ; ba-culu-m, stick (also m.) ; sepul- crum, grave. Also the primary ridi-culu-s, laughable, and the secondary anni-culu-s, aged. 9 130 FORMATION OF WORDS. 186. Suffixes with a Dental. 1. -d (N. (d)s). Substantives only : fr&u-s, cheatery ; merct-t, pay ; custo-s, guard. 2. -do, -di (N. du-s, etc., di-s). A secondary suffix used especially for the formation of adjectives : frig-i-du-s, cold ; vir-i-dis, blooming. 3. -to (-so) (N. tu-s, ta, tu-m). This forms substantives and ad- jectives, and is both primary and secondary. Primary : M. cub-i-tu-s, elbow; dig-i-tus, finger ; also substantives in -ta after Greek analogy : poS-ta, poet ; F. has-ta, spear ; am-i-ta, aunt ; N". lu-tu-m, mud ; t6c- tum, roof ; ap-tu-s, fit ; bea-tu-s, blessed. Secondary : M. nau-ta, sailor ; F. iuven-ta, youth ; N. dense growths in 6-tu-m : frutic-6-tu-m, copse ; ius-tu-B^Mstf," and passive adjectives like barb-a-tus, bearded. 4. -ti (-si) [N. tis (sis)] forms primary and secondary substantives and adjectives. Primary : M. fus-ti-s, club ; cas-si-s, hunting-net ; F. cu-ti-s, skin ; si-ti-s, thirst ; for-ti-s, brave ; ml-ti-s, mild. Secondary : (i) in adjectives and substantives indicating home, origin, usually preceded by a, I, more rarely 6 : Camer-s (Camer-ti-s), from Camerinum; Arplna-s (Arplna-ti-s), of Arpinum ; nostr-as, from our country ; (2) in the form -finsi (for ent-ti) in adjectives of origin and locality : Sicili-Sn- si-s, from Sicily ; castr-6nsi-s, belonging to a camp. 5. -t (N. (t)s) forms primary and secondary substantives and ad- jectives. Primary : M. com-e-s, companion ; dSn-s, tooth ; F. qui-6-s, rest ; ar-s, art ; locupl-6-s, wealthy ; with preceding e : dlv-e-s, rich. Note also the Participles in -ns. Secondary : M. al-e-s, bird ; eque-s, horseman. 6. -ento- (N. -entu-s, etc.) forms substantives and adjectives ; the latter are participial in nature. M. v-entu-s, wind ; F. pol-enta, cluster ; N. ungu-entu-m, salve ; cru-entu-s, bloody. Secondary adjectives : gracil-entu-s, slender ; and by false analogy corpul-entu-s, corpulent, and the like. 7. -tat, -tut (M. ta-s, tu-s), forms secondary feminine abstracts and collectives : clv-i-ta-s, citizenship ; Hber-ta-s, freedom ; iuven-tu-s, youth ; vir-tfi-s, manliness. 8. -tio, -tia, -tie (N. tiu-m, tia, ti5-s), likewise form abstracts and collectives, some neuter, most masculine : servi-tiu-m, slavery ; molli- tia and molli-tiS-s, gentleness, etc. NOTES. — 1. In in-i-tiu-m, beginning, and spa-tiu-m, room, the suffix is primary. 2. Many roots form various derivatives of similar meaning, thus : dur-i-tia, dur- i-tie-s, dur-i-ta-s, hardness, etc. 9. -ti-co (N. ti-cu-s, etc.) forms secondary adjectives signifying pertaining to ; domes-ticu-s, domestic; aqua-ticu-s, aquatic. FORMATION OF WORDS. 131 NOTE.— In such substantives as canti-CU-m, triti-C-um, the ending -co lias been added to a participial form in -to (canto, trlto). 10. -ter forms primary substantives of kinship; as, pa-ter, etc. Different in formation is soror, which, like ux-or, has no feminine ending. 11. -tor (-sor), F. -tric(K. tor, trlx), form substantives of agency, those in trlx being all secondary : aud-i-tor, hearer ; v6na-trlx, huntress ; -tor is secondary in gladia-tor, etc. 12. -turo-f -tur-a, (N. turu-s, etc.), forms participles in turu-s, as ama-turu-s, and feminine substantives denoting activity or office : cul- tur-a, cultivation ; c6n-sur-a, censorship, 13. -tor-io (-sor-io) (N. t8riu-s, etc.), form neuter substantives of place and instrument, and adjectives denoting that which pertains to the actor : audi-tor-iu-m, lecture hall ; alea-tor-iu-s, pertaining to a dice- player. 14. -tro, -tra (N. tra, tru-m), forms substantives, mostly neuter, of means: ara-tru-m, plough; fenes-tra (f.), window. From words like mon-s-tru-m, monster, come by false analogy those in -ster, as pin-aster, wild pine. 15. -tero, -tera (N. ter, tra, tru-m) forms comparatives: al-ter, other ; dex-ter, right ; nos-ter, our ; perhaps also adjectives of relation, appurtenance, or locality in -s-ter (Gr. stris), such as : palus-ter (= palud- ter), swampy ; eques-ter, equestrian ; campes-ter, champaign ; terres-ter, of the earth, terrestrial. 16. -trino, -trlna (N. trlna, trlnu-m), forms substantives of activ- ity (f.), or of locality (f., n.) : doc-trina, instruction ; pls-trlna, bakery; pls-trlnu-m, (pounding) mill. 17. -till- (-sili) (N. tili-s, tile) forms primary adjectives of capacity and adaptation, and with preceding a secondary adjectives of relation or belonging : duc-tili-s, ductile ; mis-sili-s, missile ; aqua-tili-s, belong- ing to the water. 1 8. -ter -no (N. ternu-s, etc.) forms adjectives indicating time : hes-ternu-s, of yesterday. 19. -tur-no(N. turnu-s, etc.) forms substantives and adjectives indicating continuance, from which come proper names : Sa-turnu-s, Vol-turnu-s, tac-i-turnu-s, silent. 20. -tino, -tlno (N. tinu-s, tinu-s, etc.), forms adjectives of time, the latter also of place : cras-tinu-s, of to-morrow ; intes-tlnn-s, inner, intestine ; matu-tinu-s, of early morning. 21. -tu (-su) (N. tu-s, su-s) forms substantives of action and its result : adven-tu-s, arrival ; cur-su-s, course ; or-tu-s, rising. 22. -a-tu (N. a-tu-s) forms secondary substantives of office : consul- a-tu-s, consulship • sen-a-tu-s, senate. 132 FORMATION OF WORDS. 187. Suffixes with a Labial. 1. -bo, -ba (N. bu-s, etc.), forms substantives and adjectives : M. mor-bu-s, disease ; F. bar-ba, beard ; N. ver-bu-m, word ; pro-bu-s, up- right. 2. -bro, -bra (N. bra, brti-m), forms substantives indicating means or instrument. Primary : F. dola-bra, celt ; li-bra, balance ; ter-e-bra, borer; N. cri-bru-m, sieve. Secondary : candela-bru-m, candlestick. NOTE.— Very rare are masculines ; as, fa-ber, wright ; Mulci-ber, Vulcan. 3. -bulo, -bula (N. bula, bulu-m), form substantives : F. fa-bula, tale ; fl-bula (fig-), brooch ; N. pa-bulu-m, fodder ; sta-bulu-m, stall. 4. -bill (N. bili-s) forms adjectives, mostly of passive meaning in classical prose : ama-bili-s, lovable ; no-bili-s, noble ; fle-bili-s, weeping. 188. Suffixes with an original S. 1. -is (N. is, G. er-is) forms a few substantives: v5m-is (also v5m-er), ploughshare; cin-is, ashes; pulv-is, dust ; cucum-is, cucumber. 2. -us (N. us, G. er-is, or-is) forms primary and secondary neuter substantives. Primary : foed-us, bond ; gen-us, race ; temp-us, time. Secondary : pect-us, breast ; fiin-us, funeral. NOTE. — Some such words have become monosyllabic, as aes, iiis, rfls. 3. -OS (-or) (N. 6s, or, G. 5r-is) forms many primary and a few secondary masculine abstracts. Primary : fl-6s, flower; ain-or, love. Secondary : aegr-or, sickness. NOTE.— Noteworthy are M. lep-US, hare ; F. arb-os, tree (45 N.); Ven-us (G. Yen- eris), and the adjective vet-us (G. veteris), old. 4. -es (N. es, Ss, G. is, ei) forms a few substantives of the third and fifth declension : vat-6s, bard ; fam-6s, hunger; pl6b-6s, people. 5. -or-o (N. 5ru-s, etc.) forms secondary adjectives, as : can-5ru-s, sounding ; hon-oru-s, honourable; and a few substantives, as : aur-ora, morning; Flora, etc. 189. Suffixes with a Liquid. 1. -lo, -la (N. lu-s, etc.), forms many feminine and neuter, and a few masculine substantives : M. ma-lu-s, mast ; F. pi-la, pillar ; N. cae-lu-m (= caed-lu-m), chisel ; fl-lu-m, thread. 2. -i-lOf -i-la (N. ilu-s, etc.), forms primary and secondary sub- FORMATION OF WOKDS. 133 stantives and adjectives. M. sib-i-lu-s, hissing ; N. cae-lu-m (= cav- i-lu-m, hollow), heaven; nub-i-lu-s, cloudy. 3. (-o-lo),-u-lo, -u-la (N. ulu-s, etc.), form primary and second- ary substantives, most of which indicate instrument, and primary adjec- tives indicating repeated action or tendency: M. ang-u-lu-s, corner; oc-u-lu-s, eye ; F. reg-u-la, rule ; teg-u-la, tile ; N. iac-u-lu-m, javelin ; spec-u-lu-m, mirror; bib-u-lu-s, bibulous; cr6d-u-lu-s, quick to believe; quer-u-lu-s, complaining ; caer-u-lu-s, blue (secondary), and caer-u-leu-s. Also fam-u-lu-s, servant, and the extension fam-ili-a, family. 4. -li (N. li-s, le) occurs in the substantive : M. cau-li-s, stalk ; and in adjectives : subtMi-s, fine; incl-li-s, cut in. Secondary in fide-li-s, faithful. 5. -i-li (N. ili-s, ile) forms a few substantives and many adjectives indicating passive capacity : F. strig-i-li-s, scraper ; N. teg-i-le, roof. Also vig-il, watchman ; ag-i-li-s, readily moved ; doc-ili-s, teachable. Secondary in hum-i-li-s, low, and in the terminations -tili-s, -sili-s. 6. -olOy -ola (after e, i, v), -ulo, -ula (N. olu-s, ulu-s, etc.), form diminutives : alve-olu-s, little belly ; fili-olu-s, little son ; riv-ulu-s, brook- let ; rgg-ulu-s, chief ; voc-ula, voice ; gran-ulu-m, grain ; alb-ulu-s, whit- ish; parv-olu-s, small. 7. -ello, -ella (X. ellu-s, etc.), forms diminutives after 1 and by assimilation after n, r : pop-ellu-s, tribelet; tab-el-la, tablet; pu-el-la, girl; bel-lu-s (bonus), good ; misel-lus (miser), wretched. Doubly diminutive are catel-lu-s, puppy ; cistel-la, basket ; capitel-lu-m, head. 8. -illo, -ilia (N. illu-s, etc.), forms diminutives, and is formed like ello, but usually after a preceding i : pulv-illu-s, small cushion ; pistr- illa, small mill; sig-illu-m, small image ; bov-illu-s, bovine. Also codic- illl, billets ; paux-illu-s, slight; pus-illu-s, tiny. 9. -otto, is found in cor-ol-la, wreath ; 81-la, jar (aula). 10. -ullof -ulla, occurs in ul-lu-s, any. Sul-la ( = Sur-u-la), Catul- lu-s (Caton-lus), homullus (= homon-lu-s). 11. (-co-lo), -cu-lo (N. culu-s, etc.), forms diminutives, especially after consonantal and e, i, u stems : M. fl6s-culu-s, floweret ; homun-culu-s, manikin (irregular) ; avu-n-culu-s, uncle (mother's brother, irregular) ; F. spg-cula, little hope; auri-cula, ear; arbus-cula, little tree (irregular) ; domu-n-cula, little house (irregular) ; N. cor-culu-m, (dear) heart ; munus- culu-m, little gift. Adjectives are dulci-culu-s, sweetish, and especially diminutives from comparative stems, melius-culu-s. 12. -cello (-cillo) (N. cellu-s, etc.) stands to culo as ello to ulo: M. peni-cillu-s, -m, painter's brush ; es-cillu-m, little mouth ; molli-cellu-s, eoftish. 134 FORMATION OF WORDS. 13. -uleo (N. uleu-s) forms substantives that were originally adjec- tival : acQleu-s, sting. 14. -dlif-dri (N. ali-s, ari-s, etc.), form secondary adjectives, some of which are substantivised in the neuter, and a few substantives : v6n- alis, venal; mort-ali-s, mortal; singul-ari-s, unique; vulg-ari-s, common; can-ali-s, canal; animal, living being; calc-ar, spur. 15. -ela (-ella) forms primary and secondary substantives, most of which indicate action: loqu-ela (loqu-ella), talking; cand-6la, candle; cust5d-ela, watching. 16. -eli (N. gli-s, etc.) forms secondary substantives and adjectives: cardu-eli-s, linnet; crud-Sli-s, cruel. REMARK. — A further development of -6li is -6lio, -elia : Aur-eli-us, contum-gli-a, contumely. 17. -Hi (N. fli-s, lie) forms secondary substantives and adjectives : M. aed-ili-s, cedile; N. cub-lie, couch; sed-lle, seat; clv-ili-s, civic; erl-li-s, master's. 18. -mo, -ma (N. mu-s, etc.), forms primary substantives and pri- mary and secondary adjectives. The feminine substantives express usually the result of an action: M. an-i-mu-s, spirit; cal-mu-s, cal-a-mu-s, stalk; F. fa-ma, fame; flam-ma, flame; N. ar-ma, arms; po-mum, fruit. Adjectives, primary: al-mu-s, fostering; fir-mu-s, strong. Secondary: op-I-mu-s, fat ; patr-I-mu-s, matr-I-mu-s, with father, mother, living. 19. -men, (N. men, G. min-is) forms primary, neuter substantives, mostly indicating activity or results of activity : ag-men, train; flu-men, river ; but M. fla-men, priest. 20. -men-to (N. mentu-m) forms substantives (mostly primary) indicating instrument : al-i-mentu-m, nourishment ; tor-mentu-m, tor- ture. NOTES. — 1. -men and -mentum are often formed from the same radical. In that case mentu-m is the more common : teg-u-men, teg-u-mentu-m, covering. 2. Rare and archaic are feminines in -menta : armenta = armentu-m. 3. -menti occurs in s6menti-s (f •), seed = sSmen (n.). 21. -met (N. mes, G. mit-is) forms a few masculine substantives : tra-mes, path ; fo-mes, fuel ; ll-mes, cross-path. 22. -mino, -mina, -mno, -mna (N. minu-s, etc.), form sub- stantives : M. ter-minu-s, boundary ; P. al-u-mna, foster-daughter; f8- mina, woman ; N. da-mnu-m, loss. 23. -mon (N. m6, G. m5n-is) forms primary and secondary masculine substantives : pul-mO, lung ; ser-mo, discourse ; te-m5,^oZe (of a chariot). 24. -mdn-io, -mdn-ia (N. monia, mOniu-m), forms primary and FORMATION OF WORDS. 135 secondary substantives. Primary : F. al-i-monia, nourishment ; quer-i- mBnia, complaint ; N. al-i-moniu-m, nourishment. Secondary : P. am- monia, tartness ; N. matr-i-moniu-m, marriage. 25. -mor forms primary masculine substantives : cre-mor, broth ; ru-mor, rumour. 26. -mic (N. mex, G. mic-is) forms a few substantives : cl-mex, bug ; pu-mex, pumice. 27. a. -no, -na (N. nu-s, etc.), forms primary and secondary adjec- tives ; the primary are participial in meaning ; the secondary indicate material or relation, and occasionally locality ; when added to local comparatives and adverbs, distributive numerals are also formed with this suffix. Primary : dig-nu-s, worthy; plS-nu-s, full. Secondary : diur-nu-s, daily ; frater-nu-s, brotherly ; acer-nu-s, maple ; ex-ter-nu-8, outer ; bi-nl, two each. NOTE. — Adjectives denoting material have also -neo (= n'-eo), as ae-neu-s, brazen ; Ilig-neu-s, quer-neu-s. b. -no, -na (N. nu-s, etc.), forms primary and a few secondary sub- stantives. Primary: M. fur-nu-s, oven; pug-nu-s, fist; F. cS-na, meal ; la-na, wool. N. do-nu-m, gift ; r6g-nu-m, kingdom. Secondary : M. tribu-nu-s, tribune ; F. fortu-na, fortune ; albur-nu-m, sap-wood. NOTE.— This suffix is extended iu pecu-nia, money. 28. -bundo-, -cundo (X. bundu-s, etc., cundu-s, etc.), form ad- jectives of activity : cunct-a-bundu-s, delaying; fa-cundu-s, eloquent. 29. -ni (N. ni-s) forms primary substantives and adjectives : am-ni-s, stream; pS-ni-s, tail; pa-ni-s. bread ; im-ma-ni-s, wild ; sgg-ni-s, lazy. 30. -iw-O, -ina (N. inu-s, etc.), forms primary and secondary sub- stantives and adjectives. Primary : M. dom-inu-s, lord ; F. pag-ina, page ; lic-inu-s, curled upwards. Secondary : M. ped-ic-inu-s, foot ; F. fisc-ina, basket ; N. suc-inu-m, amber ; faec-inu-s, making dregs. NOTE. — The suffix is extended in the proper name Lic-iniu-S. 31. -ano, -ana (N. anu-s, etc.), forms secondary adjectives, some of which are substantivised. They indicate origin or appurtenance ; decum-anu-s, belonging to the tenth ; hum-anu-s, human ; alt-anu-s, sea- wind. Primary in Volc-anu-s, Di-ana. 32. -dn-eo (N. aneu-s, etc.) forms primary and secondary adjec- tives. Primary : consent-aneu-s, harmonious. Secondary : subit-aneu-s, sudden. This suffix becomes anio (= an'io) in proper names : Afr-aniu-s, Fund-aniu-s. 33. -eno, -ena (N. enu-s, etc.), forms secondary substantives and 136 FORMATION OF WORDS. adjectives : M. Vlbidi-Snu-s ; F. cat-Sna, chain ; hab-Sna, rein ; N. ven-enu-m, poison ; eg-gnu-s, needy ; ali-6nu-s, strange. . NOTE.— This is extended to Sn-on in toll-8n5, (well) sweep. 34. -ino, -Ina (X. inu-s, etc.), forms primary and secondary sub- stantives and adjectives. Primary : M. cat-inu-s, -m, dish ; F. rap-ina, rapine; ru-ina, ruin; nec-op-inu-s, unexpected. Secondary: M. pulv- Inu-s, cushion; sal-mu-m, salt-cellar, and many feminines, especially those denoting shops and factories; rgg-Ina, queen ; cul-ina, kitchen; offic-Ina, workshop ; agn-Inu-s, belonging to a lamb ; div-inu-s, divine. NOTE.— An extension of this suffix is found in rlc-lniu-m, veil. 35. -en (X. -en, G. -in-is) forms a few substantives : M. pect-en, comb ; N. glut-en, glue. 36. -on (X. 5, G. in-is) forms a few substantives : M. card-o, hinge ; marg-o, rim ; ord-6, rota ; F. a-sperg-6, sprinkling ; virg-5, maid ; car-5, flesh. NOTES.— 1. Noteworthy is hom-0, hom-in-is, man, 2. This suffix occurs very commonly in compounds forming feminine abstracts : -eddn (N. Sd5), dulc-edo, sweetness ; -iddn (N. Id5), cup-Ido, desire ; form- Id5,/ear; -udon (N. udo\ test-udo, tortoise ; -tn don (N. tud5), aegri-tud5, sickness ; -agon (N. ago), im-ago, image ; -ugon (N. ugo), aer-ugo, rust ; -Igon (N. Igo), cal-lgo, thick darkness ; or-Ig6, origin, etc. 37. -on (N. 5, G. onis) forms primary and secondary substantives. The primary are nouns of agency : combib-5, fellow-drinker ; prae-c-o, herald ; tl-r5, recruit. The secondary indicate often the possession of some bodily or mental peculiarities; ale-o, dice-player; centuri-0, centurion. 38. -ion (X. i8) forms a few masculine and many feminine primary and secondary substantives. Primary : M. p&g-i5, dagger ; F. opln-io, opinion ; reg-i5, region. Secondary : M. pell-i5, furrier ; vespertll-i6, bat; F. com-mun-i5, communion. NOTE.— Especially frequent are feminine abstracts in t-i5 (s-i5) : amb-i-ti6, ambi- tion ; op-pugna-tiQ, siege. Noteworthy are the secondary diminutives, homunc-i5, senec-io. 39. -otiOf -onct (X. 6nu-s, ona), forms few primary and many sec- ondary substantives ; the masculines indicate agents, especially person employed : M. col-5nu-s, settler ; F. matr-ona, matron; Bell-5na. 40. -onio, -onia (X. 6niu-s, etc.), forms substantives and adjec- tives : M. Fav-6niu-s, zephyr; Pomp-5niu-s, etc.; caup-oniu-s, belonging to a host. Xeuters indicate the trade or shop : full-Sniu-m, fuller* s-shop. 41. -ro, -ra (X. (e)r, -ra, ru-m), forms primary substantives and ad- jectives : M. ag-e-r, field ; cap-e-r, goat ; mu-ru-s, ivall ; F. lau-m-s, laurel ; FORMATION OF WORDS. 137 ser-ra, saw ; N. flag-ru-m, whip ; lab-ru-m, lip ; cla-ru-s, bright ; pfi-rus, clean. Often a short vowel precedes : M. num-e-ru-s, number ; F. cam-era, vault ; N. iug-eru-m, measure of land. So hil-aru-s, joyous ; Ub-er, free ; cam-uru-s, vaulted ; sat-ur, full. NOTES.— 1. Extensions are Mer-curiu-s, tug-uriu-m, hut. 2. In a number of primary substantives and adjectives simple r is preceded by a short vowel : M. late-r, tile ; ans-er, goose ; F. mul-i-er, woman ; N. ac-er, maple; v6r (= ves-er), spring ; cic-ur, tame. 42. -ri (N. -(e)-r, -ris, G. ris) forms substantives and adjectives : M. imb-e-r, rain-storm ; ac-e-r, sharp ; funeb-ri-s, funeral ; perhaps celeb-er, thronged. 43. -aro forms adjectives, as : av-aru-s, greedy ; am-aru-s, bitter. 44. -arty -ali (N. ari-s, ali-s, etc.), forms secondary substantives and adjectives ; -ari when the stem has 1, -ali when it has an r : pugill-arS-s, tablets ; prlmipil-ari-s, one who has been primipilus ; some neuters in ar (from -are) : calc-ar, spur; ex-em-p-1-ar, pattern; pulvm-ar, (sacred) couch; auxili-ari-s, auxiliary ; mllit-ari-s, military ; c5nsul-ari-s, consular. 45. -aria, -aria (N. ariu-s, etc.), forms substantives and adjec- tives. There are sometimes collateral forms in -Sri-s. The substantives, when masculine, indicate artisans; when feminine, business or pro- fession ; when neuter, the place where the work is carried on. M. argent-ariu-s, money-changer ; ferr-ariu-s, iron-ivorker ; F. argent-aria, silver mine, bank or banking ; N. api-ariu-m, beehive ; pom-ariu-m, apple orchard. 46. -ero (N. Sru-s, etc.) forms sev-6rus, earnest, and the substantive gal-Sru-s, -m, bonnet. 47. -ari forms the substantive sec-uri-s, axe, and by extension p6n- uria, ivant. 48. The letter r appears often in combination with other suffixes, as : -er-co in lup-ercu-s, Pan ; nov-erca, step-mother ; -er-to in lac-ertu-s, arm ; lac-ertu-s, a lizard ; -er-bo in ac-erbu-s, sour ; sup-erbu-s, proud ; -er-vo in ac-ervo-s, heap; cat-erva, crowd; -er-na in cav-erna, hollow; lu-cerna, lamp ; -ter-na in lan-ter-na, lantern ; -ur-no in alb-urnu-s, white fish ; lab-urnu-m, laburnum. 190. FORMATION OF VERBS. 1. Primitives are confined to the Third Conjugation, to some forms of the Irregular verbs, and to some Inchoatives. The various stem- formations are shown in 133. 2. Derivatives comprise the verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth 138 FORMATION OF WORDS. Conjugations, and some verbs of the Third Conjugation. They are all (except the Inchoatives and the Meditatives) formed with the suffix io, ie (yo, ye), which is added either to simple verbal stems, or to noun (16) stems already existing or presupposed. The i in io, ie, contracts with the preceding vowels a, 6, i, u, leaving the ordinary forms of the regular conjugations. Certain categories of these verbs have obtained special names according to their various meanings : The Causatives, formed by a change in the stem-vowel. The Desideratives, formed by the addition of -io to nomina agentis in -tor ; afterwards a desiderative force was associated with the com- bination -tor-io (-tar-io), and it was applied indiscriminately. The Frequentatives come originally probably from participial stems in -to ; Latin developed also the suffix -ito ; further, this being added again to -to gave rise to -tito (-sito). The Inchoatives, formed by a special suffix, -sco (sko), are treated in conjugation as primitives belonging to the Third Conjugation. The Meditatives have not been explained. NOTE.— Theoretically the Verbalia are all DSnoniinadva, but owing to the wide working of Analogy, it has been impossible in many cases, as in ama-re, monS-re, to discover an original noun ; while in other cases, as the verbal is formed from a part of a denominative verb, it is convenient to retain the division. 191. A. Verbalia (derived from verb-stems, 190, N.): 1. Frequentatives or Intensives, denoting repeated or in- tense Action. These verbs end in -tare (-sare), -itare, -titare (-sitare), and follow the supine stem (perfect passive form). (a) cantare, sing ; compare can5 (cantum) : cursare, run to and fro ; compare curro (curstun) : dictare, dictate ; compare dic5 (dictum) : dor- mltare, be sleepy ; compare dormio (dormltum) : habitare, keep, dwell ; compare habeB (habitnm) : pollicitarl, promise freely ; compare polliceor (pollicitus) : pulsar e, beat ; compare pello (pulsum). (b) agit&re (ago), noscitare (nosco), sclscitare (scIscO), visitare (vls5), vocitare (voco), volitate (vo!5). (c) cantitare (cantare), dictitare (dictare), cursitare (cursare). NOTES.— 1. The simple verb presupposed by the frequentative or intensive is often out of use, as in the case of : gus-tare, taste ; hor-tarf , exhort. The frequentative or intensive in -tare is often out of use : actitare, repeatedly or zealously agitate (no Sctare), from ago, actum: iSctitSre, read carefully (no Igctare), from lego, lectum. 2. The verbs of the Fourth Conjugation form no frequentatives except dormi5, sleep, dormito ; muniS, fortify, munfto (rare) ; saliS, leap, saltO ; aperto, lay bare, and opertS, cover, and compounds of ventS (venio, come). 2. Inchoatives indicate entrance upon an action. For their formation see 133, V. 3. Desideratives denote Desire or Tendency. They are formed FORMATION OF WORDS. 139 by means of the suffix -turio (-surio) : gsurire (for ed-t), to be sharp-set for eating, hungry ; 6m-p-turlre, to be all agog for buying. 4. Causatives signify the Effecting of the Condition indicated by their original verb. They are found mainly in the Second Conjugation, and show usually a change in the stem-vowel. Change: cadere, fall, and caedere, fell; liqugre, melt (trans.), and llquere, melt (intr.) ; from root men- (as in me-men-to) comes monere, remind ; necare, kill, and nocere, be death to ; placere, please, and placare, cause to be pleased, appease ; sedSre, sit, and sedare, settle. No change ; fugere, flee, and fugare, put to flight ; iacere, throw, and iacere, (lie) thrown; pendere (hang) weigh, and pendere, hang (intr.). 5. Meditatives : (verbs that look forward to an action). These end in -essere : arcessere, to summon ; capessere, to catch at ; facessere, to do eagerly ; incessere, to enter ; lacessere, to irritate (136, 3, V). 192. B. Denominatives (derived from noun-stems) : 1. These are most commonly found in the First Conjugation, even though the stem- vowel of the noun is i or u. (a) acerva-re, heap up (from acervo-s); aestua-re, seethe (aestu-s) ; corona-re, wreathe (corOna) ; leva-re, lighten (lev-i-s) ; macula-re, be- smirch (macula) ; nomina-re, name (nomen, nomin-is) ; onera-re, load (onus, oner-is). The Deponents signify Condition, Employment : aneilla-rl, be maid (ancilla) ; aqua-ri, be a drawer of water (aqua) ; fura-rl, thieve (fOr) ; laeta-rl, be glad (laetu-s). (b) albS-re, be white (albu-s) ; flor6-re, be in bloom (fl5s, fl5ris) ; fronde-re, be in leaf (fr5ns. frondi-s) ; luce-re, be light (lux, luc-is). (c) argue-re (be bright, sharp), prove ; laede-re, hurt ; metue-re, be in fear (metu-s). (d) custodl-re, guard (custSs, custod-is) ; fini-re, end (flni-s) ; leni-re soften (ISni-s) ; vestl-re, clothe (vesti-s). 3. Noteworthy are the Diminutives formed by the suffix -illare : st-illare, drop (st-illa) ; scint-illare, sparkle (scint-illa) ; osc-illare, to swing (5sc-illum). Similar in function but of different formation are pullu- lare, sprout (pul-lus) ; fodic-are, punch (fodere, dig) • albicare, whiten (albu-s). NOTES.— 1. The Denominatives of the First, Third, and Fourth Conjugations are regularly transitive, those of the Second Conjugation are regularly intransitive. 2. These verbs are often found only in combination with prepositions : ab-undare, run over, abound (from unda, wave) ; ac-cusare, accuse (from causa, case) ; ex-ag- gerare, pile up (from agger) ; ex-stirpare, root out (stirp-s) ; il-luminare, illumine. (from lOmen, lumin-is). I4O FORMATION OF WORDS. B.— Compound Words. I. FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS. 193. i. By composition words are so put together that a new word is made with a signification of its own. The second word is regularly the fundamental word, the first the modifier. NOTE.— Properly speaking, composition occurs only in the case of substantives, i. e.-> where two or more simple stems come together. In verbs, there is either juxtaposition, where the parts still retain their original force, or the combination of a verb with a preposition. Broadly speaking, however, composition applies to all combinations of words. 2. Composition is either proper or improper. 194. Substantive. In Composition Improper there are either traces of con- struction or the first part is still inflected : S-n5rmis = ex nSrma, out of all rule, ; iSgis-lator, lawgiver ; Senatus-consultum, decree of the Senate. Many of these compounds have gradually become inflectional : deli- rus (de-lira), crazy from fear ; Sgregius (6-grege), distinguished (from the crowd) ; procSnsul (for pro console) ; trium-vir (from trium virtun), etc. NOTE. — From composition we must distinguish juxtaposition. So a preposition is brought into juxtaposition with a substantive, or a substantive with a substantive : ad-modum, to a degree, very ; ob-viam, in (he way, meeting ; ususfructtis, fruct; luppiter, Father Jove. Noteworthy are the Copulative compounds ; such are compound numerals like un-decim, duo-decim, etc., and occasional others : su-ove- taur-Ilia, offerings of swine, sheep, and bulls. 195. Composition Proper. i. The first part of the compound may be a particle, as ne-far-iu-s, nefarious ; vS-sanu-s, mad, out of one's sound senses : or a substantive. If it is a substantive — (a) The stems in -a, -o, -u regularly weaken these vowels into -i before the consonants of the second part, which i may vanish : causi- dicus, pleader, lawyer (causa) ; signi-fer, standard-bearer (slgnu-m) ; comi-ger, horn-wearer (cornti) ; man-ceps (maim- and cap-), one who takes in hand, contractor. The i-stems retain i or drop it : igni-vomu-s, fire- vomiting (igni-s) ; nau-fragu-s, shipwrecked (navi-s). (b) Vowel-stems drop their vowel before the vowel of the second part : magn-animu-s, great-souled ; un-animu-s, of one mind. (c) Consonant-stems either drop their consonants or add i: homi- cld-a, manslayer (homin-) ; lapi-cid-a, stone-cutter (lapid-) ; matr-i-cid-a, mother -murderer, matricide. NOTE.— The first part is rarely, if ever, a verb. APULEIUS uses the form pQeci- FORMATION OF WORDS. 14! 2. The second part of the composition is a noun : tri-enn-iu-m, space, of three years (annus); miseri-cor-s, tender-hearted (cor). When the second part ends in a vowel, it adapts itself, if an adjec- tive, to changes of gender, as flavi-comus, yellow-haired (coma, hair), but more often this final vowel becomes i and the adjective follows the third declension : tri-rgmi-s, trireme (rgmu-s, oar) ; ab-normi-s, abnormal (norma, norm). When the second part ends in a consonant, the last term usually undergoes no change : bi-dSn-s, two-pronged ; simplex (sim-plec-s), simple, NOTE.— From genus (G. generis), is formed dS-gener. II. SIGNIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS. 196. Compound substantives and adjectives are divided according to their signification into two main classes : Determinative and Pos- sessive. In Determinative compounds one of the terms is subordinate to the other. They fall into two classes : Attributive or Appositional, and Dependent. 197. i« Attributive compounds. The first part is the attribute of the second. The first word is, (i) a substantive : ali-pgs, wing-foot(ed) ; (2) an ad- jective : magn-animus, great-hearted; lati-fundium, large estate; (3) a numeral : bi-enni-um (i. e., spatium), space of two years. 2. Dependent compounds. In these the second word is simply limited by the other, its signification not being altered. (a) The first word is : (i) an adjective : merl-diSs (from medi-die = medi5 dig), mid-day ; (2) an adverb : bene-ficus (well-doing), beneficent ; male-ficus, evil-doing ; (3) a numeral : ter-geminus, triple; (4) a par- ticle : dis-sonus, harsh-sounding ; per-magnus, very large ; in-dlgnus, unworthy ; (5) a verb-stem : horr-i-ficus, horrible (horror-stirring). (b) The first word gives a case relation, such as (i) the Accusative : armi-ger = arma gergns, armour-bearer ; agri-cola •=. agrum coigns (land- tiller), husbandman; (2) the Genitive : s5l-stitium = sSlis static (sun- staying), solstice ; (3) the Locative : alieni-gena (born elsewhere), alien ; (4) the Instrumental : tibi-cen = tibia cangns, flute-player. 198. Possessive Compounds are adjectival only, and are so called because they imply the existence of a Subject possessing the quality indicated. The first term is, (i) a substantive : angui-manus, (having a) snake- hand (elephant) : (2) an adjective : flavi-comus, (having) yellow hair ; (3) a numeral : bi-fr5ns, (having) two front(s) ; (4) a particle : dis-cors, discordant ;. in-ers, inactive. 142 FORMATION OF WORDS. NOTE.— Notice that these divisions run into each other ; thus magn-animus la possessive, attributive, and dependent. 199. Verb. In Composition Imp roper the verb is joined to a verb, sub- stantive, or adverb. In Composition Proper the verb is com- bined with a preposition. 200. i- Compo sition Improper . (a) Verb urith verb : This only takes place when the second part of the compound is facio or fJ8 (173, N. 2). The first part of the compound is regularly an intransitive of the second conjugation : cale-faci5, cale- 05, warm, am warmed. (b) Verb with substantive : anim-adverto = animum adverto, take notice ; manu-mitt5, set free ; usiL-capi5, acquire by use. (c) Verb with adverb : bene-dico, bless ; male-dlc5, curse ; malO, n515 (for mage (magis) volo, ne- vo!5), satis-faciS, satisfy. 2. Composition Proper. The verb combines with separable or inseparable prepositions Compare 413, R. 3. (a) With inseparable prepositions : amb-eo, go about ; am-plector, en- fold; an-b.815, draw deep breath, pant; dis-currS, run apart; dir-imo, 160, i, and 715, E. i ; por-tend5, hold forth, portend; red-do, give back; re-solv8, resolve ; s5-iung5, separate. (b) With separable prepositions : ab-eS, go away ; ad-e5, come up ; ante-currS, run in advance ; com-pono, put together ; d5-curr5, run down, finish a course ; ex-cedo, overstep ; in-cludo, shut in ; ob-dQc5, draw over ; per-agro, wander through ; post-habeo, keep in the background ; prae-dlc5, foretell ; praeter-e6, pass by ; pr5d-e6, go forth ; prae-vide5, foresee ; sub-iciO, put under ; subter-fugiS, flee from under ; super-sum, remain over ; trans-gredior, pass beyond. SYNTAX. 201. SYNTAX treats of the formation and combination of sentences. A sentence is the expression of a thought (sententia) in words. Sentences are divided into simple and compound. A simple sentence is one in which the necessary parts occur but once ; for the compound sentence see 472. The necessary parts of the sentence are the subject and the predicate. The predicate is that which is said of the subject. The subject is that of which the predicate is said. Luna fulget, The moon shines. Luna is the subject ; fulget, the predicate. REiMARKs. — i. The Interjection (16, R. z) and the Vocative case (23, 5) stand outside the structure of the sentence, and therefore do not enter as elements into Syntax, except that the Vocative is subject to the laws of Concord. See R. 3. 2. The Vocative differs from the Nominative in form in the second declension only, and even there the Nominative is sometimes used instead, especially in poetry and solemn prose. Almae fllius Maiae, H., 0., I. 2, 43 ; son of mild Mala! Audi tu, populus Albanus, L., i. 24, 7 ; hear thou, people of Alba ! 6 is prefixed to give emphasis to the address: 0 f5rm5se puer, minium nS crSde colon, V., EC. z, 17 ; O shapely boy! trustnot complexion all too much. The Vocative is commonly interjected in prose, except in highly emotional pas- 3. On the use of the Vocative of an adjective or participle in appo- sition, attribution, or predication, see 289, 325, R. i. SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 202. The most simple form of the sentence is the finite verb : su-m, I am ; doce-s, thou teachest ; scrlbi-t, he writes. 144 SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. REMARK. — Here the form contains in itself all the necessary ele- ments (compare 114), the persons being indicated by the endings. From the expansion and modification of the finite verb arise all the complicated forms of the compound sentence. 203. SUBJECT. — The subject of the Unite verb is always in the Nominative Case, or so considered. REMARKS. — i. The subj. of the Inf. is in the Accusative (343, 2). 2. The use of the Nom. in Latin is the same as in English. 204. The subject may be a substantive or a pronoun, or some other word, phrase, or clause used as a substantive : Deus muncluni gubernat, GOD steers the universe. Ego rgggs gi§cl, [C.] ad Her., iv. 53, 66 ; I drove out kings. Sapiens r6s adversas non timet, THE SAGE does not fear adversity, VictI in servitutem redi- guntur, THE VANQUISHED are reduced to slavery. Contendisse de- cSrum est, Ov., M., ix. 6 ; TO HAVE STRUGGLED is honourable. Magnum beneficium [est] naturae quod necesse est morl, SEN., E.M.,ioi, 14; it is a great boon of nature, THAT WE MUST NEEDS DIE. VidSs habet duas syllabas, (the word) "VIDES" has two syllables. NOTES. — 1. Masculine and feminine adjectives, and to a less degree participles, are used as substantives, but with the following limitations : (a) Many adjectives in -arius and -icus (the latter mostly Greek), designating office or occupation, and words expressing friendship, kinship, or other relationship, are used often as substantives both in the Sing, and the PI. of the masculine and femi- nine : aquarius, waterman ; librarius, bookman (-seller, ivriler, etc.) v grammati- CUS, grammarian- ,• amlcus, friend ; cognatus, kinsman ; socius, partner. Many of these have become almost wholly fixed as substantives, as faalous,friend. See 16, N. 1. (b) Adjectives are very often used as substantives in the masc. PI. when they desig- nate a class : pauper 5s, the poor ; dlvitSs, the rich. In the oblique cases of the Sing., this use is also not uncommon ; but in the Xom. the substantive is generally expressed : vir bonus, a good man ; mulier peregrlna, a foreign woman. So regularly, if used •with a proper name : Plato, doctissimus homo, the learned Plato. Exceptions are rare and scattering in prose : ego et suavissimus CicerS valBmus, C., Fam., xrv. 5, 1. (c) On the use of participles aa substantives see 437, N. (d) When persons are not meant, a substantive is understood : canl (capilll), ffray hairs ; calida (aqua), warm water ; dextra (manus), right hand. 2. Neuter adjectives and participles are freely employed as substantives in both num- bers ; in the PI. usually in Nom. and Ace., in the Sing, in all cases, butespecially in con- r.ectioa with prepositions : medium, (he midst ; extrSmum, the end ; reliquom, the residue ; futurum, the future ; bonum, good ; bona, blessings, possessions ; malum, evil ; mala, misfortunes. The Plnral is frequently employed when the English idiom prefers the Singular : v6ra, the truth ; bmnia, everything. 3. Adjectives of the Second Declension are sometimes used as neuter substantives ir, the Gen., after words of quantity or pronouns : aliquid bonl, something good ; nihil mall, nothing bad. Adjectives of the Third Declension are thus employed only in combination with those of the Second, and even then very rarely (369, B. i). Usually the adjective of the Third Declension draws the adjective of the Second SUBJECT — PREDICATE — COPULA. 145 Into its own construction : Quid habet ista re's aut laetabile aut gl5riQsum ? C., Tusc., i. 21, 49 ; what is there to be glad of or to brag about in that? 4. Instead of the neuter adjective, the word rSs, thing, is frequently used, especially in forms which are identical for different genders, and consequently ambiguous ; so bonarum rerura, of blessings, rather than bon5rum (masc. and neut.). 5. In Latin the PI. of abstract substantives occurs more frequently than in English ; adventus imperatorum, the arrival(s) of the generals (because there were several generals, or because they arrived at different times). Pluralising abstract substantives often makes them concrete : fortitudin6s, gallant actions ; formldine"s, bugbears ; irae, quarrels. 6. Other PI. expressions to be noted are: nivSs, snow(-Jlakes) ; grandings, hail (-stones) ; pluviae, (streams of) rain ; ligna, (logs of) wood ; earn 6s, pieces of meat ; aera, articles of bronze ; also symmetrical parts of the human body : cervicSs, neck ; pectora, breast. The PI. is freely used in poetry and in later prose : Otia si tollas, perifire Cu- pldinis arcus, Ov., Hem. Am., 139 ; if you do away with holidays, Cupid's bmv (and arrows) are ruined. 7. The rhetorical Boman of ten uses the First Person PI. for the First Person Singular. The usage originates in modesty, but mock modesty is the worst form of pomposity. It is never very common, and is not found before CICERO : Librum ad tS d8 senec- tute misimus, C., Cat. M., i, 3 ; we (I) haw sent you a treatise on old age. In poetry there is often an element of shyness ; Sitque memor nostri necne, re- ferte mibl, Ov., Tr., iv. 3, 10 ; bring me back (word) whether she thinks of us (me among others) or no. 8. (a) The Sing., in a collective sense, is also used for the PI., but more rarely: faba, beans ; porous, pig (meat) ; galllna,/0z0/ (as articles of food) ; vestis, clothing. (b) The use of the Sing, in designations of nationalities and divisions of troops is introduced by LIVY : Romanus, the Roman forces ; Poenus, the Carthaginians ; hostis, the enemy ; miles, the soldiery ; pedes, (he infantry ; eques, the cavalry. 205. PKEDICATE and COPULA. — When the predicate is not in the form of a verb, but in the form of an adjective or substantive, or equivalent, the so-called copula is generally employed, in order to couple the adjective or substantive with the subject. The chief copula is the verb snm, I am. Fortima caeca est, C., Lael., 15, 54 ; fortune is blind. TTsus magister est optimus, C., Rab. Post., 4, 9 ; practice is the best teacher. NOTE. — Strictly speaking, the copula is itself a predicate, as is shown by the trans- lation when it stands alone or with an adverb : est Deus, there is a God, God exists ; r6ct5 semper erunt rSs, things will always be (go on) ^veU ; sic vita hominum est, C., Rose. Am., 30, 84 ; such is human life ; " So runs the world away." 206. Other copulative verbs are : videri, to seem; nasci, to be lorn; fieri, to become; evadere, to turn out; creari, to be created; deligi, to be chosen; putari, to be thought; haberl, to be held; did, to be said; appellari, to be called; nominari, to be named. Hence the rule : Verbs of seeming, becoming, with the passive of verbs of 10 146 SUBJECT OMITTED. — IMPERSONAL VERBS. making, choosing, showing, thinking, and calling, take two Nominatives, one of the subject, one of the predicate : N6m8 nascitur dives, SEN., E.M., 20, 13; no one is born rich. Aria- tides iustus adpellatur, Aristides is called just. [Servius] rex est declara- tus, L., i. 46, 1 ; Servius was declared king. [Thucydidgs] niimquam est numeratus orator, C., 0., 9, 31 ; Thucydides lias never been accounted an orator. REMARKS. — i. With esse, serve as; vidgrl, seem; kaberi, be held; dQd, be deemed, and rarely with other verbs, instead of the Predicate Nom., a phrase may be employed, as : pro" with Abl., (in) Ioc5, in numer5, with Gen., etc. Audacia'pro miir5 habetur, S., C., 58, 17 ; boldness is counted as a bul- wark. In fUil Ioc5, C., Red, in Sen., 14, 35 ; as a son. 2. The previous condition is given by ex or dS and the Abl. (396, N. 2). Ex Cratore arator factus, C. , Ph. , in. 9, 22 ; a pleader turned plowman. 3. All copulative verbs retain the Nom. with the Inf. after auxiliary verbs (423). Beatus esse sine virtute nenuJ potest, C., N.D., i. 18, 48 ; no one can be happy without virtue. 4. On the Double Ace. after Active Verbs, see 340. NOTES.— 1. The verbs mentioned, with some others, are found in good prose. Others are either poetical or unclassical, thus : perhibSrl, to be held, is early ; apparfire, to appear, is poetic and post-classical for vidSri ; reddi is not used for fieri ; sisti, to be set down, is Plautine ; manSre, to remain, is late (permanSre once in CICERO). 2. Noteworthy is the use of audlre, like the Greek axoueix, to be catted, which is confined to HORACE ; rSxque paterque audlsti, Ep., i. 7, 38 ; S., 11. 6, 20, just as " hear " in this sense is said to be confined to MILTON. 207. SUBJECT OMITTED. — The personal pronoun is not expressed in classical prose, unless it is emphatic, as, for example, in contrasts : Amamus parentSs, We love (our) parents. Ego rggSs 6i6ci, vos tyran- n5s introducitis, [C.] ad Her., iv. 53, 66 ; I drove out kings, ye are bring- ing in tyrants. NOTE. — The insertion of the pronoun without emphasis is very common in the comic poets, and seems to have been a colloquialism. Also common in CATULLUS, SAL- LUST (as an archaism), and PETRONIUS. 208. IMPERSONAL VERBS. — Impersonal Verbs are verbs in which the agent is regularly implied in the action, the sub- ject in the predicate, so that the person is not expressed. Chief of these are : i. Verbs pertaining to the state of the weather-: tonat, it thunders, the thunder thunders, or rather, the Thunderer thunders; fulget, fulgu- COPULA OMITTED. 147 rat (less common), fulminat (poet.), it lightens; pluit (poet.), it rains; ningit, it snows, etc. Nocte pluit tola, V., (POET. LAT. MIN., iv. 155, B.) ; all night it (he, Jupiter) rains. NOTE.— The divine agent is sometimes expressed ; so, naturally, in religious or popu- lar language : love tonante, fulgurante, c., Div., n. 18, 43 ; love fulgente, C., N. D., n. 25, 65. 2. The passive of intransitive verbs is often used impersonally ; so regularly of verbs which in the active are construed with the Dat. (217): vlvitur, people live ; curritur, there is a running ; pugnatur, there is a battle ; mihi invide"tur, / am envied. The subject is contained in the verb itself : sic vivitur = sic vita vlvitur, such is life ; pugnatur = pugna pugna- tur, a battle is (being) fought. In the same way explain taedet, it wearies ; miseret, it moves to pity ; piget, it disgusts ; pudet, it puts to shame. NOTES. — 1. With all other so-called Impersonal Verbs an Inf. (422, 535) or an equiv- alent (523) is conceived as a subject : N5n labet mihi deplorare vitam , C., Cat. M., 23, 84. Sed accidit perincommode quod eum nusquam vidistl, C., Aft., 1. 17, 2. 2. Other uses coincide with the English. So the Third Person PL of verbs of Saying, Thinking, and Calling. Also the ideal Second Person Singular (258). To be noticed is the occasional use of inquit, quoth he, of an imaginary person, but not by CAESAR, SALLUST, or TACITUS : N5n concede, inquit, Epicure, C., Ac., n. 32, 101 ; I do not yield the point, quoth he (one), to Epicurus. 209. COPULA OMITTED. — Est or sunt is often omitted in saws and proverbs, in short statements and questions, in rapid changes, in conditional clauses, and in tenses com- pounded with participles : Summum ius summa iniuria, C., Off., i. 10, 33 ; the height of right (is) the height of wrong. Nemo malus fsllx, Juv., iv. 8 ; no bad man (is) happy. Quid dulcius quam habere quicum omnia audeas loqul T C., Lad., 7, 22 ; what sweeter than to have some one with whom you can venture to talk about everything ? Sed haec vetera ; illud v6ro recgns, C., Ph., n. II, 25. Aliquamdiu certatum, S., lug., 74, 3. Cur hostis Spartacus, si tu clvis* C., Parad.,4, 30. So also esse, with participles and the like : Caesar statuit exspectandam classem, CAES. , B. &., in. 14, 1 : Caesar resolved that the fleet must be waited for. NOTES.— 1. The omission of esse is not common with the Nom. and Infinitive. 2. Popular speech omits freely ; so, mlrum nl, mlrum quin, factum, in Latin comedy ; likewise potis and pote for forms of posse. To a like origin are due mlrum quantum, nimium quantum, etc., found at all periods. 3. The ellipsis of other forms of the copula is unusual. Thus CICERO occasionally omits sit in the Indirect Question, and TACITUS other forms of the Subjv. besides. Fuisse is omitted by LIVT, and not unfrequently by TACITUS. 4. The Ellipsis of esse was sometimes due to the desire of avoiding the heaping up 148 AGREEMENT OF PREDICATE WITH SUBJECT. of Infinitives. Thus sentences like non dubitS t6 esse sapientem dlcere (to declare you to be wise) were regularly cut down to non dubito t§ sapientem dicere (to de- clare you wise). 5. The ellipsis of other verbs, such as facere, ire, venire, dicere, etc., is charac- teristic of popular speech ; it is therefore not uncommon in CICERO'S letters (ad Att.\ in PLINY'S letters, and in works involving dialogue, such as CICERO'S philosophical writings. The historians avoid it, and it never occurs in CAESAK and VELLEIUS. CONCORD. 210. THE THREE CONCORDS. — There are three great concords in Latin : i. The agreement of the predicate with the subject (211). . 2. The agreement of attributive or appositive with the substantive (285, 321). 3. The agreement of the relative with antecedent (614). The verbal predicate agrees with its subject j 211. Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject. in number and person. ( in number, The adjective predicate agrees with its subject 4 gender, and ( case. The substantive predicate agrees with its subject in case. Substantlva mobiiia (21, 2) are treated as adjectives, and follow the number and gender of the subject. Ego rgges elSci, vSs tyrannos introducitft, [C.] ad Her., iv. 53, 66 (207). Verae amicitiae sempiternae sunt, C., Lad., 9, 32 ; true friendships are abiding. DCs est decem talenta, TER. , And., 950 ; the dowry is ten talents. Usus magister est optimus, C. , Bab. Post. , 4, 9 (205). Arx est monosyllabum, "Arx" is a monosyllable. Compare Ignis c5nfector est et consumptor omnium, CM N.D., n. 15, 41 ; fire is the doer-up (destroyer) and eater-up (consumer) of everything, with confectrix rgrum omnium vetustas, C. , Frag. REMARKS. — i. The violation of the rules of agreement is due chiefly to one of two causes; either the natural relation is preferred to the artificial (c5nstructi5 ad sSnsum, per synesin, according to the sense), or the nearer is preferred to the more remote. Hence the following EXCEPTIONS. — (a) Substantives of multitude often take the predi- cate in the Plural: paxs,part ; vis (power), quantity ; multitude, crowd ; organized bodies more rarely. Also, but not often, such words as quisque, uterque, nem6, etc. Pars malor receperant sSsS, L., xxxiv. 47, 6 ; the greater part had re- tired. Omnis multitude abeunt, L., xxiv. 3, 15 ; all the crowd depart. AGEEEMENT OF PREDICATE WITH SUBJECT. 149 Magna vis eminus missa telorum multa nostrls vulnera infer Sbant, CAES., B.C., ii. 6, 5. Uterque eorum ex castrls exercitum gducunt, CAES., B.C., in. 30, 3. NOTE.— This usage is very common in comedy, but extremely rare in model prose. LIVY shows a greater variety and a larger number of substantives than any other author, and poets and late prose writers are free. Yet HORACE uses regularly the Sing, with a collective, while VERGIL varies, often employing first a Sing, and then a PI. verb with the 'same substantive (as A., n. 64). TACITUS often uses quisque with a Plural. (b) The adjective predicate often follows the natural gender of the subject ; so especially with milia. This usage belongs pre-eminently to the historians. Capita coniurationis virgis caesl (sunt), L., x. i, 3 ; the heads of the conspiracy were flogged. Samnitium caesi tria milia, Cf. L., x. 34, 3 ; of the Sammies (there) were slain three thousand. The passive verb often agrees in gender with the predicate : Non omnis error stultitia dicenda est, G.,Div., n. 43, 90 ; not every false step is to be called folly. (c) The copula often agrees with the number of the predicate ("the wages of sin is death ") : Amantium Irae (204, N. 5)amoris integratiS est, TER., And., 555; lovers' quarrels are love's renewal. 2. A superlative adjective denned by a Partitive Gen. follows the gender of the subj. when it precedes: Indus, qul est omnium fluminum maximus, C., N.D., n. 52, 130 ; the Indus, which is the greatest of all rivers. Otherwise it follows the Genitive ; but this usage is post-classic : Velocissimum omnium animalium est delphlnus, PLIN., N.H., ix. 8, 20 ; the dolphin is the swiftest of all animals. 3. The Voc. is sometimes used by the poets in the predicate, either by anticipation or by assimilation. (See 325, R. i.) 4. The neuter adjective is often used as the substantive predicate of a masculine or feminine subject : Triste lupus stabulls, V., EC., 3, 80 ; the wolf is a baleful thing to the folds. Varium et mutaMle semper fSmina, V., A.,iv. 569 ; "a thing of moods and fancies " is woman ever. This construction is poetical ; in CICERO it is used with a few words only ; such as extrgmum, commune : Omnium rgrum (204, N. 4) mors [est] extrSmum, Cf. C., Fam:, vi. 21, 1; death is the end of all things. 5. The demonstrative pronoun is commonly attracted into the gen- der of the predicate : Negat Epicurus ; hoc enim vostrum lumen est, C., Fin., IT. 22, 70 ; Epi- curus says No ; for he is your great light. Ea n6n media sed nulla via* est, L., xxxii., 21, 33 ; that is not a middle course, but no course at all. I5O FORMS OF THE VERBAL PREDICATE. But in negative sentences, and when the pronoun is the predicate, there is no change. So in definitions : Quid aut quale [est] Deus 1 Cf. C., N.D., \. 22, 60 ; what or what man- ner of thing is God ? Nee sopor illud erat, V., A., in. 173. Quod ita erit gestum, id lex erit, C., Ph., 1. 10, 26. Exceptions are but apparent. C., O.,n. 38, 157. 6. The adjective predicate sometimes agrees with a substantive in apposition to the subject. So especially when the appositive is oppidum, dvitas, and the like : Corioll oppidum captum [est], L.,n. 33, 9; Corioli-town was taken. Corinthum, tstlus Graeciae lumen, exstinctum esse voluerunt, C.,lmp., 5, 11 ; they would have Corinth, the eye of all Greece, put out. NOTES.— 1. Peculiar is the occasional use of the Fut. participle in -urum for feminines in early Latin : Altero (gladiS) tS occisurum ait (Casina\ altero vflicum. PL., Cos., 693. So True., 400. 2. Age is often used in early Latin as If it were an adverb, with the Plural ; occa- sionally also cave : Age modo fabricaminl. PL., Cos., 488. Akin is the use of a Voc. Sing, with a PI. verb, which is occasionally found in clas- sical prose also : Turn Scaevola ; quid est, Cotta ? inquit, quid tacetis 1 c., 0., 1-35,160. The use of aliquis, some one of you, in this way is early : Aperlte aliquis actutum ostium, TER., Ad., 634. 3. Other less usual constructions ad sgnsum are : the use of a neuter demonstrative where a substantive of a different gender is expected, and the construction of r5s as if it were neuter (both found also in CICEKO) ; the neuter Singular Humming up a preced- ing Plural : In Graecia music! floru§runt, discSbantque id (that [accomplishment]') omnes, C., Tusc., i. 2, 4. Servitia repudiabat, ctiius (of which [class]) initiS ad eum magnae cSpiae concurrSbant, S., C'., 56, 5. See also C., Div., 11. 57, 117. Forms of the Verbal Predicate. VOICES OF THE VERB. 212. There are two Voices in Latin — Active and Passive. REMARK. — The Latin Passive corresponds to the Greek Middle, and, like the Greek Middle, may be explained in many of its uses as a Reflexive. 213. ACTIVE. — The Active Voice denotes that the action proceeds from the subject. Verbs used in the Active Voice fall into two classes, as follows : Verbs are called Transitive when their action goes over to an object (transeo, / go over} ; Intransitive when their ac- tion does not go beyond the subject : occidere, to fell = to (Transitive) ; occidere, to fall (Intransitive). PASSIVE VOICE. 151 REMARK. -Properly speaking, a Transitive Verb in Latin is one that forms a personal passive, but the traditional division given above has its convenience, though it does not rest upon a difference of nature, and a verb may be trans, or intrans. according to its use. So (a) Transitive verbs are often used intransitively, in which case they serve simply to characterize the agent. This is true especially of verbs of movement ; as declinare, inclinare, movere, mutare, vertere, and the like, and is found at all periods. (b) On the other hand, many intrans. verbs are often used transi- tively. This occurs also at all periods, but the Ace. is usually the inner object (332). (c) On the use of the Inf. active, where English uses the passive, see 532, N. 2. 214. PASSIVE. — The Passive Voice denotes that the sub- feet receives the action of the verb. The instrument is put in the Ablative. Virgls caedetur, C., Verr., in. 28, 69 ; he shall be beaten with rods. [Ignis] lumine proditur su5, Ov., Her., 15, 8 ; the fire is betrayed by its own light. The agent is put in the Ablative with ab (a). Ab amicis prSdimur, C., Cluent., 52, 143 ; we are betrayed by friends. Virgls caesi tribunl ab legato sunt, L., xxix. 18, 13 ; the tribunes were beaten with rods by the lieutenant. REMARKS. — i. Intrans. verbs of passive signification are construed as passives : fame per ire, C., Inv., n. 57, 172, to perish of hunger. So venire, to be sold ; vapulare (chiefly vulgar), to be beaten, ab aliquo, by some one. Ab reo fustibus [vapulavit], Cf. QUINT., ix. 2, 12; he was whacked with cudgels by the defendant. SalvSbis a meo Cicerone, C., Att., vi. 2, 10 ; /reeting to you from Cicero. 2. When the instrument is considered as an agent, or the agent as an instrument, the constructions are reversed : Vinci a Voluptate, C., Off., i. 20, 68 ; to be overcome by Dame Pleasure. Patricils iuvenibus saepserant latera, L. , m. 37, 6 ; they had flanked him with a guard of patrician youths. The latter construction is very rare in CICERO, and seems to belong pre-eminently to the historians. Animals, as independent agents, are treated like persons. A cane non magno saepe tenetur aper, Ov., Rem.Am., 422 ; a boar is often held fast by a little dog. Animals, as instruments, are treated like things. Compare equ5 vehl, to ride a horse (to be borne by a horse), with in equ5, on horseback. 152 VOICES OF THE VERB. 215. The person in whose interest an action is done is put in the Dative. Hence the frequent inference that the person interested is the agent. See 354. 1. With the Perfect passive it is the natural inference, and common in prose. Mih¥ res tota provisa est, C., Verr., iv. 42, 91 ; I have had the whole thing provided for. Carmina nulla mihf sunt scrlpta, Ov., Tr., v. 12, 35; poems — I have nor<,e written (I have written no poems). 2. With the Gerundive it is the necessary inference, and the Dative is the reigning combination. Nihil [est] homini tarn timendum quam invidia, C., Cluent., 3, 7 ; there is iwthing that one has to fear to the same extent as envy. 216. The Direct Object of the Active Verb (the Accusa- tive Case) becomes the Subject of the Passive. Alexander Dargum vlcit, Alexander conquered Darius. Bareus ab Alexandro victus est, Darius was conquered by Alexander. 217. The Indirect Object of the Active Verb (Dative Case) cannot be properly used as the Subject of the Passive. The Dative remains unchanged, and the verb becomes a Passive in the Third Person Singular (Impersonal Verb). This Passive form may have a neuter subject corresponding to the Inner object (333, i). Active: Miserl invident bonls, The wretched envy the well-to-do. Passive : mibl invidetur, / am envied, tibi invidgtur, thou art envied, el invidetur, he is envied, nobls invidetur, we are envied, v5bls invidetur, you are envied, ils invidetur, they are envied. Nihil facile persuadetur invltls, QUINT., rv. 3, 10 ; people are not easily persuaded of anything against their will. Anulls nostrls plus quam animis ereditur, SEN., Sen., in. 15, 3 ; our seals aremore trusted than our souls REMARKS. — i. In like manner a Gen. or Abl. in dependence upon an active verb cannot be made the subj. of the passive. 2. On the exceptional usage of personal Gerundives from intrans. verbs see 427, N. 5. NOTES.— 1. The poets and later prose writers sometimes violate the rule, under Greek influence or in imitation of early usage : Cur invideor ? (for cur invidetur mib;( ?\, H.s A.P., 56 ; vix eauidem crSdar, Ov., Tr., m. 10, 35 ; persuasus videtur ab aliqud, by some one. REFLEXI VE — DEPONENT. 1 5 3 6886, [C.] ad Her., i. 6, 9. (Persuadeo hospitem, PETR., 62, 2, is perhaps an inten- tional solecism.) 2. Similar liberties are taken by poets and late prose writers with the passive of other intrans. verbs, such as concSdere, permittere, praecipere, prSniintiare : FS- tis numquam concessa (= cui concessum est) mov6rl Camarma, V., A., in. 700. 218. REFLEXIVE. — Reflexive relations, when emphatic, are expressed as in English : Omne animal se ipsum diligit, C., Fin., v. 9, 24, Every living creature loves itself. But when the reflexive relation is more general, the pas- sive (middle) is employed : lavor, / bathe, I bathe myself. Purgarl [nequlvgrunt], Cf. L., xxiv. 18, 4 ; they could not clear thein- selves. Cum in mentem vSnit, p3nor ad scribendum, C., Fam., ix. 15,4 ; when the notion strikes me I set myself to writing. NOTE.— Some of these verbs approach the deponents, in that the reflexive meaning of the passive extends also to some active forms ; thus, from vehor, I ride, we get the form vehSns, riding (rare) : AdulSscentiam per media's laudSs quasi quadrlgls vehentem, C., Br., 97, 331. 219. As the active is often used to express what the subject suffers or causes to be done, so the passive in its reflexive (middle) sense is often used to express an action which the subject suffers or causes to be done to itself : trahor, I let my- self be dragged ; tondeor, / have myself shaved. Duos MysSs [Insuisti] in culeum, Cf. C., Q.F., i. 2, 2, 5 ; you sewed two Mysians into a sack (had them sewn). Sine gemitu aduruntur, C., Tusc., v. 27. 77 ; they let themselves be burned without a moan. Diruit, aedi- ficat, H., Ep., i. i, 100 ; he is pulling down, he is building. Ipse docet quid agam; fas est et ab hoste docSrl, Ov., M., iv. 428 ; he himself teaches (me) what to do ; it is (but) right to let oneself be taught even by an enemy (to take a lesson from a foe). 220. DEPONENT. — The Deponent is a passive form which has lost, in most instances, its passive (or reflexive) significa- tion. It is commonly translated as a transitive or intransi- tive active : hortor, / am exhorting (trans.) ; morior, / am dying (intrans.). NOTES.— 1. A number of intrans. verbs show also a Perfect Part, passive used actively ; not, however, in classical prose combined with esse to take the place of the regular Perfect. On the use of such participles as substantives, see 167, N. i. Quid causae excogitarl potest, cur te lautum voluerit, cenatuni noluerit occldere ? C., Dei., 7, 20. 2. Many verbs show both active and deponent forms side by side. In this case the active forme belong more often to early authors. See 163-167. 1 54 TENSES. 221. RECIPROCAL. — Reciprocal relations ("one another"} are expressed by inter, among, and the personal pronouns, nos, us ; vos, you ; sfi, themselves. Inter se amant, Tliey love one another. REMARKS. — i. Combinations of alter altenun, alius alium, uterque alterum, and the like, also often give the reciprocal relation : some- times there is a redundancy of expression. Placet Stoicis homines hominum causa esse generates, ut ipsl inter s5 alii aliis prodesse possent, C., Off., i. 7, 22 ; it is a tenet of the Stoics that men are brought into the world for the sake of men, to be a blessing to one another. 2. Later writers use invicem or mutuo, inter s6, vicissim ; and early Latin shows occasionally uterque utrumque. Quae omnia hue spectant, ut invicem ardentius diligamus, PLIN.,^., vii. 20, 7 ; all these things look to our loving one another more fervently. Uterque utrlquest cordl, TER., Ph., 800 ; either is dear to other. TENSES. 222. The Tenses express the relations of time, embracing : 1. The stage of the action (duration in time). 2. The period of the action (position in time). The first tells whether the action is going on, or finished. The second tells whether the action is past, present, or future. Both these sets of relations are expressed by the tenses of the Indicative or Declarative mood — less clearly by the Sub- junctive. 223. There are six tenses in Latin ; 1. The Present, denoting continuance in the present. 2. The Future, denoting continuance in the future. 3. The Imperfect, denoting continuance in the past. 4. The Perfect, denoting completion in the present. 5. The Future Perfect, denoting completion in the future. 6. The Pluperfect, denoting completion in the past. 224. An action may further be regarded simply as attained, without reference to its continuance or completion. Contin- uance and completion require a point of reference for defini- tion ; attainment does not. This gives rise to the aoristic or indefinite stage of the action, which has no especial tense- TABLE OF TEMPO EAL BELATIONS. 155 form. It is expressed by the Present tense for the present ; by the Future and Future Perfect tenses for the future; and by the Perfect tense for the past. Of especial importance are the Indefinite or Historical Present and the Indefinite or Historical Perfect (Aorist), which differ materially in syntax from the Definite or Pure Present and Perfect. 225. The Tenses are divided into Principal and Histori- cal. The Principal Tenses have to do with the Present and Future. The Historical Tenses have to do with the Past. The Present, Pure Perfect, Future, and Future Perfect are Principal Tenses. The Historical Present, Imperfect, Pluperfect, and His- torical Perfect are Historical Tenses. The Historical Tenses are well embodied in the following distich : Talia tentabat, sic et tentaverat ante, Vixque dedit victas utilitate manus. Ov., Tr., i. 3, 87. 226. Table of Temporal Relations. INDICATIVE MOOD. ACTIVE. Continuance. Completion. Attainment. PEES. scrlbS, scrips!, scrlbo, I am writing. I have written. I write. FUT. scribam, scrlpserS, scrlbam (scrlpserB), / shall be writing. I shall have written. I shall write. PAST. scrlbSbam, scrlpseram, scrfpsl, I was writing. I had written. I wrote. PASSIVE. Continuance. Completion. Attainment. PRKS. scrlbitur (epistula), scrlpta est, scrlbitur, The letter is written has been written, is written. (writing). is written. FUT. scrlbStur, scrlpta erit, scrlbetur, The letter will be will have been, will be written. written (writing). will be written. PAST. BcrlbSbatur, scrlpta erat- scrlpta est, The letter was writ- had been written, was written, ten (writing). was written. 156 PRESENT TENSE. REMARK. — The English passive is ambiguous. The same form is cur- rently used for continuance, attainment, and completion. The context alone can decide. A convenient test is the substitution of the active. ( Continuance, Some one was writing a letter. A letter was written : •< Completion, Some one had written a letter. ' Attainment, Some one wrote a letter. Present Tense. 227. The Present Tense is used as in English of that which is going on now (Specific Present), and of statements that apply to all time, (Universal Present). Specific Present : Auribus teneo lupum, TER., Ph., 506 ; lam holding a wolf by tlie ears. Universal Present : Probitas laudatur et alget, Juv., i. 74 ; honesty is bepraised and freezes. Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, H., 0., in. 2, 13 ; sweet and seemly 'tis to die for fatherland. 50 regularly of the quoted views of authors, the inscriptions of books, etc. : D6 iuvenum amore scribit Alcaeus, C., Tusc., iv. 33, 71 ; Alcaeus writes concerning the love of youths. NOTES.— 1. The Specific Pr. is often to be translated by the English Progressive Present. The Universal Pr. is Aoristic, true at any point of time. 2. As continuance involves the notion of incompleteness the Pr. (see 233) is used of at- tempted and intended action (Present of Endeavor). But on account of the double use of the Pr. this signification is less prominent and less important than in the Impf . Do not mistake the Endeavor which lies in the verb for the Endeavor which lies in the tense. Perlculum vltant, C., Rose. Am., 1. 1 ; they are trying to avoid danger. In the example sometimes cited : Qulntus frater Tusculanum venditat, C., Att., 1. 14, 7 ; Brother Quintus is " trying to sell " his Tusculan villa ; vSnditare itself means to offer for sale. Translate : intends to offer for sale, if the notion lies in the Tense. 3. The Pr. when used with a negative often denotes Resistance to Pressure (233) ; this is, however, colloquial : Tac6 : non tace~, PL., Cos., 826 ; keep quiet! I WON'T. 4. The ambiguity of our English passive often suggests other translations. Use and Wont make Law ; hence the frequent inference that what is done is what ought to be done ; what is not done is not to be done : (Deus) nee bene promeritis capitur, nee tangitur Ira, LUCB., u. 651 ; God is not to be inveigled by good service, nor touched by anger. 228. The Present Tense is used more rarely than in English in anticipation of the future, chiefly in compound sentences : 51 vincimus, omnia tuta erunt, S., C., 58, 9 ; if we conquer (— shall con- quer) everything will be safe. Antequam ad sententiam rede5 d5 me pauca dlcam, C., Cat., iv. 10, 20 ; before I return to the subject, I will IMPERFECT TENSE. 157 say a feu* things of myself . ExspectabS dum venit, TER., Eun., 206 ; 1 will wait all the time that he is coming, or, until he comes. NOTES.— 1. This construction is archaic and familiar. It is very common in the Comic Poets, very rare in CICERO and CAESAR, but more common later. Some usages have become phraseological, as si vivo, if Hive, as Hive. 2. On the Pr. Indie, for the Deliberative Subjv., see 254, N. 2. 229. The Present Tense is used far more frequently than in English, as a lively representation of the past (Historical Present) : Cohortis incSdere iubet, S., C., 60, 1 ; he orders the cohorts to advance. Maturat proficlscl, CAES., B. G., i. 7, 1 ; he hastens to depart. REMARK. — Dam, while (yet), commonly takes a Pr., which is usually referred to this head. Dum, so long as, follows the ordinary law, 571, ff . Dum haec in colloquio geruntur, Caesari nuntiatum est, CAES., /!<>'., i. 46, 1 ; while these things were transacting in the conference, word was brought to Caesar. 230. The Present is used in Latin of actions that are con- tinued into the present, especially with lam, now ; iam diu, now for a long time ; iam pridem, now long since. In Eng- lish we often translate by a Progressive Perfect. (Mithridate's) annum iam tertium et vlcSsimum regnat, C., Imp., 3, 7 ; Mithridates has been reigning no^o going on twenty-three years. Libe- r£re vos a Philippe iam diu magis vultis quam audetis, L., xxxn. 21, 36; you have this long time had the wish rather than (= though not) the courage to deliver yourselves from Philip. " How doe* your honor for this many a day?" SHAK., Ham., in. i, 91. NOTES.— 1. The Pr. sometimes gives the resulting condition : Qul mortem non timet, magnum is sibl praesidium ad beat am yltam com- parat, C., Tusc., n. i, 2 ; he who fears not death gets for himself great warrant for a happy life. (DIcunt) vincere (= victorem esse) bellC Romanum, L., n. 7, 2. 2. More free is this usage in the poets, sometimes under Greek influence : AuctSre Phoebo gignor (yiyvoti.cn. = -yoi/os ei/tu) j baud generis pudet. SEN., Ag., 295. VERGIL is especially prone to use a Pr. after a Past, denoting by the Past the cause, by the Pr. the effect: Postquam altum tenuSre rates nee iam amplius ullae adparent terrae, A., m. 192. Imperfect Tense. 231. The Imperfect Tense denotes continuance in the past: pugnabam, I was fighting. The Imperfect is employed to represent manners, customs, situations; to describe and to particularise. A good ex- ample is TEE., And., 74 ff. 158 IMPERFECT TENSE. The Imperfect and the Historical Perfect serve to illus- trate one another. The Imperfect dwells on the process; the Historical Perfect states the result. The Imperfect counts out the items; the Historical Perfect gives the sum. A good example is NEP., n. i, 3. 232. The two tenses are often so combined that the general statement is given by the Historical Perfect, the particulars of the action by the Imperfect : (VerrSs) in forum vgnit ; ardebant ocull ; t5t5 ex ore crudelitas 5mine"bat, C., Verr., v. 62, 161 ; Verres came into the forum, his eyes were bhtziny, cruelty was standing out from his whole countenance. 233. The Imperfect is used of attempted and interrupted, intended and expected actions (Imperfect of Endeavor}. It is the Tense of Disappointment and (with the negative) of Resistance to Pressure. (Mere negation is regularly Perfect. ) Curiam relinquebat, TAC., Ann., n. 34, 1; Tie was for leaving the senate-house. [LSx] abrogabatur, C'f. L., xxxiv. i, 7 ; the law was to be abrogated. Simul ostendebatur (an attempt was made to show) quomodo c6nstituti5nem reperirl oportSret, [C.] ad Her., n. i, 2. DlcSbat (positive) melius quam scrlpsit (negative) Hortensius, C., Or., 38, 132 ; Hortensius spoke better than he wrote. Aditum n5n dabat, NEP., iv. 3, 3 ; he WOULD not grant access (dedit, DID not). See also MART., xi. 105. NOTES.— 1. The Impf. as the Tense of Evolution is a Tense of Vision. Bat in Eng- lish, Impf. and Hist. Pf. coincide ; hence the various translations to put the reader in the place of the spectator. 2. The continuance is in the mind of the narrator ; it has nothing to do with the absolute duration of the action. The mind may dwell on a rapid action or hurry over a slow one. With definite numhers, however large, the Hist. Pf. must be used, unless there is a notion of continuance into another stage (overlapping). (Gorgias) centum et novem vixit annos, QUINT., HI. i, 9 ; Gorgias lived one hundred and nine years. Biennium ibi perpetuom misera ilium lull, TEK., Sec., 87 ; / bore him there— poor me .'—for two long years together. 3. As the Tense of Disappointment, the Impf. is occasionally used, as in Greek, to express a startling appreciation of the real state of things (Imperfect of Awakening). Greek influence is not unlikely. Tu aderas, TEK., Ph., 858 ; (so it turns out that) you were here (all the time). Peream male si n6n optimum erat, H., S., H. i, 6 ; perdition catch me if that was 'not the best course (after all). Hence the modal use of dSbSbam and poteram (254, K. 2). 234. The Imperfect is used as the English Pluperfect, which often takes a progressive translation ; especially with iam, iam din, iam dudum, PERFECT TENSE. 159 lam dudum tibi adversabar, PL., Men., 420 ; Iliad long been opposing you. (Archias) domicilium Romae multos iam annos [habebat], Cf. C., Arch., 4, 7 ; Archias had been domiciled at Home now these many years. REMARK. — As the Hist. Pr. is used in lively narrative, so the Hist. Inf. is used in lively description, parallel with the Imperfect (647). Perfect Tense. The Perfect Tense has two distinct uses : i. Pure Perfect. 2. Historical Perfect (Aorist). 1. PURE PERFECT. 235. The Pure Perfect Tense expresses completion in the Present, and hence is sometimes called the Present Perfect. 1. The Pure Perfect differs from the Historical Perfect, in that the Pure Perfect gives from the point of view of the Present an instan- taneous view of the development of an action from its origin in the Past to its completion in the Present, that is, it looks at both ends of an action, and the time between is regarded as a Present. The Historical Perfect obliterates the intervening time and contracts beginning and end into one point in the Past. 2. An intermediate usage is that in which the Perfect denotes au action in the Past (Historical), whose effect is still in force (Pure). 236. Accordingly, the Perfect is used : 1 . Of an action that is now over and gone. Viximus, C., Fam., xiv. 4, 5 ; we have lived (life for us has been}. Filium unicum habeo, immo babul, TEB., Heaut., 94 ; I have an only son — nay, have had an only son. Tempera quid faciunt : bane volo, tS volul, MART., vi. 40, 4 ; what difference times make ! (Time is) I want HER, (Time HAS BEEN) I wanted YOU. 2. Far more frequently of the present result of a more remote action (resulting condition) : Equum et mulum Brundisil tibi rellqul, C., Fam., xvi. 9, 3 ; Ihave left a horse and mule for you at Brundusium — (they are still there). Perdidi spem qua m5 oblectabam, PL., Rud., 222 ; I've lost the hope with which 1 entertained myself. Actumst, peristi, TER., Eun., 54; it is all over; you're undone. , REMARK. — The Pure Pf. is often translated by the English Pres- ent : n6vl, / have become acquainted with, I knoiv ; memini, / have recalled, ./ remember ; odl, / have conceived a hatred of, I hate ; cSn- suevl, / have made it a rule, I am accustomed, etc. l6o HISTORICAL PERFECT. Oderunt hilarem tristgs tristemque iocosl, H., Ep., 1. 18, 89; the long- faced hate the lively man, the jokers hate the long-faced man. But the Aorist force is sometimes found : Tac6, inquit, ante hoc n5vi qnam tu natus es, PHAED., v. g, 4 ; silence, quoth he, I knew this ere that you were born. NOTE.— The Pf . is used of that which has been and shall be (Sententious or Gnomic Perfect, 242, N. i), but usually in poetry, from CATULLUS on, and frequently with an indefinite adjective or adverb of number or a negative. It is seldom an Aorist (Greek). Evertere domos totas optantibus ipsis dl facilSs, Juv., x. 7 ; whole houses at the masters' own request the (.too) compliant gods overturn. N8mo repente fuit tor- pissimus, Juv., 11. 83 ; none of a sudden (hath ever) reach(ed) the depth of baseness. 237. As the Present stands for the Future, so the Perfect stands for the Future Perfect. (Brfltus) si c5nservatus erit, vlcimus, C., Fam., xn. 6, 2 ; Brutus ! — if HE is saved, we are victorious, we (shall) have gained the victory. 238. Habed or teneo, / hold, / have, with the Accusative of the Perfect Participle Passive, is not a mere circumlocu- tion for the Perfect, but lays peculiar stress on the mainte- nance of the result. Habeo statutum, Cf. C., Verr., in. 41, 95 ; I have resolved, and hold to my resolution. Perspectum habeo, Cf. C., Fam., in. 10, 7 ; / have per- ceived, and I have full insight. Excusatum habeas mS rogo, c6no doml, MART., u. 79, 2 ; I pray you have me excused, J dine at home. 2.. HISTORICAL PERFECT. 239. The Historical or Indefinite Perfect (Aorist) states a past, action, ivithout reference to its duration, simply as a thing attained. M115 donium venit, calceos et vestimenta mutavit, paulisper commoratus est, C., Mil., 10, 28; Milo came home, changed shoes and garments, tar- ried a little while. (Gorgias) centum et novem vlxit annos, QUINT., in. i, 9 (233, N. 2). V5nl, vldl, vlcl, SUET., lul., 37 ; I came, saw, overcame. NOTE. — The Pf., as the "short hand " for the Plupf., is mainly post-Ciceronian, but begins with CAESAR. It is never common: superioribus diebus nSna Caesaris Iegi5 castra e5 Ioc5 posuit, CAES., B. C., in. 66, 2. 240. The Historical Perfect is the great narrative tense of the Latin language, and is best studied in long connected passages, and by careful comparison with the Imperfect. See C., Off., in. 27, 100 ; Tusc., i. 2, 4. PLUPERFECT TEKSE. — FUTURE TENSE. l6l Pluperfect Tense. 241. The Pluperfect denotes Completion in the Past, and is used of an action that was completed before another was be- gun. It is, so to speak, the Perfect of the Imperfect. Hence it is used : 1. Of an action just concluded in the past. Modo Caesarem rggnantem vlderamus, C., Ph., n. 42, 108 ; we had just seen Caesar on the throne. 2. Of an action that was over and gone. Fuerat inimlcus, C., Red. in Sen., 10, 26 ; he had been my enemy. 3. Of a resulting condition in the past. MassiliSnsSs portas Caesar! clauserant, CAES., B.C., i. 34, 4 ; the Mar- seillese had shut their gates against Caesar. (Their gates were shut.) REMARK. — When the Pf. of Resulting Condition is translated by an English Pr. (236, 2, R.), the Plupf. is translated by an English Im- perfect : nSveram, I had become acquainted with, I knew ; memineram, I remembered ; 5deram, J hated ; cSnsuSveram, / w as accustomed, etc. NOTES.— 1 . Not unf requently in early Latin, rarely in classical prose, but more often in the poets, the Plupf. seems to be used as an Aorist ; so very often dlxerat : Nil equidem tibi abstull. EV. At illud quod tib! abstuleras cedo, PL., Aul., 635. N5n sum ego qui fueram, PROP., 1. 12, 11. See Ov., 7V., HI. n, 23. 2. The Periphrastic Plupf. with habeo corresponds to the Perfect (238). It is rare, and shows two forms, one with the Imperfect and one with the Plupf., the latter being post-classical. Equitatum, quern ex omul provincia coactum liabebat, praemittit. CAES., B. &., 1. 15, l. Multorum aures ilia lingua attonitas habuerat, VAL. M., m. 3. Future Tense. 242. The Future Tense denotes Continuance in the Fut- ure : scrlbam, / shall be writing. The Future Tense is also used to express indefinite action in the Future : scrlbam, / shall write. REMARKS. — i. In subordinate clauses the Latin language is more exact than the English in the expression of future relations. Donee eris fellx, multSs numerabis amlcos, Ov., Tr., i. 9, 5 ; so long as you shall be (are) happy, you will count many friends. 2. Observe especially the verbs vo!5, I will, and possum, I can. Odero si potero; si n5n, invitus amabO, Ov., Am., in. n, 35 ; I will hate if I shall be able (can) ; if not, I shall love against my will. Qui 11 1 62 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. adipisci vSram glSriam volet, iustitiae fungatur officiis, C., Off., IT. 13, 43 ; whoso shall wish to obtain true glory, iet hirfi discharge the calls of justice. 3. The Fut. is often used in conclusions, especially in CICERO : Sunt ilia sapientis ; aberit igitur a sapiente aegritudS, C). , Ttisc. , in. 8, 18. NOTES.— 1. The Fut. is used sometimes as a gnomic (236, N.) tense : Haut facul fSmina invenietur bona, AFK., 7; unneth (= hardly) a woman shall be found that's good. Et tremet sapiens et dolSbit, et expallescet, SEN., /:..)/., 71, 29. 2. Observe the (principally comic) use of the Future to indicate likelihood : Verbnm hercle hoc vSrom erit, TEE., Eun., 732 ; this will be God't oicn truth. 243. The Future is used in an imperative sense, as in English, chiefly in familiar language. Tii nibil dice's, II., A. P., 385 ; you will (are to) say nothing (do you say nothing). Cum volet accedes, cum te vltabit abibis, Ov., A. A., n. 529 ; u'hen she u-ants you, approach ; and when she avoids you, begone, sir. N5n mgappellabis, si sapis, PL., Most., 515 ; see C., Fam., v. 12, 10. Compare utetur and utatur, CORN., n. 3, 5. Similar is the Future in Asseverations (comic). Ita mS amabit luppiter, PL., Trin., 447 ; so help me God ! Future Perfect Tense. 244. The Future Perfect is the Perfect, both Pure and Historical, transferred to the future, and embraces both completion and attainment: fecero, TER., Ph., 882 ; I shall have done it, or / shall do it (once for all) ; videro, TER., Ad., 538 ; I will see to it; profecerit, C., Fin., in. 4, 14; it will prove profitable. REMARKS. — i. Hence, when the Pf. is used as a Pr., the Fut. Pf. is used as a Future : novero, / shall know; consueverO, / shall be ac- customed; Odero, si potero, Ov., Am., in. n, 35 (242, R. 2). 2. In subordinate sentences, the Latin language is more exact than the English in the use of the Fut. Perfect ; hence, when one action pre- cedes another in the future, the action that precedes is expressed by the Fut. Perfect. Qui prior strinxerit ferrum, eius victoria erit, L., xxiv. 38, 5 ; who first draws the sword, his shall be the victory. 3. The Fut. Pf. is frequently used in vol5, 1 will; n8l5, I tcill not; possum, / can ; licet, it is left free ; libet, it is agreeable ; placet, it is the pleasure ; whereas the English idiom familiarly employs the Present. SI potuero, faciarn vobis satis, C., Br., 5, 21; if I can, I shall satisfy yo-u. PERIPHRASTIC TENSES. 163 4. The Fut. Pf. in both clauses denotes simultaneous accomplish- ment or attainment ; one action involves the other. Qui Antonium oppresserit, is bellum confecerit, C., Fam., x. 19, 2 ; he who shall^ have crushed (crushes) Antony, will have finished (will finish) the ivar. [Ea] vitia qui fugerit, is omnia fere vitia vltaverit, 0., Or., 69, 231 ; Tie who shall have escaped these faults, ivill have avoided almost all faults. Sometimes, however, the first seems to denote antecedence, the second finality. An Impv. is often used in the first claiise. Immuta (verborum collocationem), perierit t5ta r§s, C., Or., 70, 232 ; change the arrangement of the words, the whole thing falls dead. NOTES.— 1. The independent use of the Fut. Pf. is characteristic of Comedy, but occurs occasionally later in familiar style. Sometimes it gives an air of positiveness : Bene merentl bene profuerit, male merenti par erit, PL., Capt.,vs ; good desert shall have good issue ; HI desert shaft, have Us due. Ego eras hie er5 : eras habuero, uxor, ego tamen convlvium, PL., Cos., 786. Nusquam facilius hane iniserrimam vitam vel sustentabo vel abiecero, C., Alt., in. 19, l. See also C., Ac., ii. 44, 135 ; L., i. 58, 10. 2. The Periphrastic Fut. Pf. with habeo is rare. It corresponds to the Pf. and Pluperfect. Quod si fSceris, m5 maximo beneficiS de" vinctum habSbis, C., Att., xvi. 16 B. 9. 245. As the Future is used as an Imperative, so the Future Perfect approaches the Imperative. D6 tS tu videris ; ego dS mg ipse profitebor, C., Ph., u. 46, 118 ; do you see to yourself ; I myself will define my position. NOTE.— This is confined in CICERO almost entirely to videris, which is suspiciously like the familiar Greek future o>//ei, and is used in the same way. Periphrastic Tenses. 246. The Periphrastic Tenses are formed by combining the various tenses of esse, to be, with participles and verbal adjectives. See 129. I. PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION-ACTIVE VOICE. 247. The Periphrastic Tenses of the Active are chiefly com- binations of esse and its forms with the so-called Future Par- ticiple Active. The Future Participle is a verbal adjective denoting capability and tendency. Compare amator and amaturus. The translation is very various : 1. Scripturus sum, I am about to write, I am to write, I purpose to write, lam likely to write. 2. Scripturus eram, / wajft about to write, etc. 164 PERIPHRASTIC TENSES. 3. Scrfpturus ful, I have been or was about to write (often = I should have written). 4. Scrlpturus faeram, I had been about to write, etc. 5. Scripturus ero, 1 shall be about to write, etc. 6. Scripturus fuer5, / shall have made up my mind to ivritc, etc. (of course very rare). 1. Fiet illud quod futurum est, C., Div., n. B/ 21 ; what is to be, willbe. z. [E§x] non interfuturus naval! certaminl erat, L., xxxvi. 43, 9 ; the king did not intend to be present at the naval combat. 3. Fascls ipsl ad me delaturl fugrunt, C., Ph., xiv. 6, 15 ; they them- selves were ready to tender the fasces to me. DSditos ultinus cruciatibus adfecturl fuerunt, L., xxi. 44, 4 ; they would have put the surrendered to extreme tortures. 4. Maior Roman orum gratia fuitquam quanta futura Carthaginiensium fuerat, L., xxn. 22, 19 ; the Romans'1 credit for this u-as y.reater than the Carthaginians' would have been. 5. Eorinn apud qu5s aget aut erit acturus, mentes sensusque degustet, C., Or., i. 52, 223 ; he must taste-and-test the state of mind of those be- fore whom he will plead or will have to plead. 6. (Sapiens) non vlvet, si fuerit sine homine victurus, SEX., E.M., 9, 17; The wise man will not continue to live, if he finds that he is to live without human society. (The only example cited, and that doubtful.) REMARKS. — i. The forms with sum, eram, and the corresponding Subjv. forms with sim, essem, are much more common than those with ful, etc., probably for euphonic reasons. 2. The Subjv. and Inf. scripturus sim, essem, fuerim, fuissem, scrlpturum esse, ftiisse, are of great importance in subordinate clauses. (656.) NOTES.— 1. The use of forem for essem appears first in SALLUST, but is not uncom- mon in LIVT, and occurs sporadically later. Fore for esse is post-classical. Dicit se vgnisse quaesitum pacem an bellum agitaturus foret, S., lug., 109, 2. 2. The periphrastic use of the Pr. Part, with forms of esse is rare, and in most cases doubtful, as the question always arises whether the Part, is not rather a virtual substantive or adjective. So with the not uncommon ut sis SciSns of the Comic Poets. The effect of this periphrasis is to emphasise the continuance. Nem6 umquam tarn sui despiciSns (desptser of self, self-depredator) fait quln speraret melius s6 posse dlcere, C., Or., n. 89, 364. li. PERIPHRASTIC TENSES OF THE PASSIVE. A.— Of Future Relations. 248. The periphrases fatunim esse (more often fore) ut, (that) it is to le that, and futurum fuisse ut, (that) it was to be that, with the Subjunctive, are very commonly used to take the place of the Future Infinitive active ; necessarily so PERIPHRASTIC TENSES. 165 when the verb forms no Future Participle. In the passive they are more common than the Supine with Iri. Spgro fore ut contingat id nobis, C., Tusc., i. 34, 82 ; / hope that we shall have that good fortune . In fatls scriptum Vgientes [habgbant] fore ut brevi a Gallis E5ma capergtur, C., Dir., i. 44, 100 ; the Veientes had it written down in their prophetic books that Home would shortly be taken by the Gauls. REMARK. — Posse, to be able, and velle, to will, on account of their future sense, do not require a periphrasis. In the absence of peri- phrastic forms, the forms of posse are often used instead. (65(5, R.) NOTES.— 1. These periphrases do not occur in early Latin. 2. Fore ut is used chiefly with Pr. and Impf. Subjv. ; Pf. and Plupf. are very rare. (C., Aft., xvi. i6E. 1C.) 3. The form futurum fuisse Ut is used with passive and Snpineless verbs, to ex- press the dependent apodosis of an unreal conditional sentence. Nisi eo ipso tempore nuntil de Caesaris victoria essent allati, exlstima- bant plgrique futurum fuisse utl (oppidum) amittergtur, CAES., B. e., m. 101, 3. (056, 2.) 4. The Subjv. forms futurum sit, esset, fuerit ut, are used in the grammars to supply the periphrastic Subjv. of passive and Supineless verbs (see 515, K. 2). Warrant in real usage is scarce. An utique futurum sit ut Carthaginem superent Roman! 1 QUINT, m. 8, ir (not merely periphrastic). 249. In eo est, it is on the point, j ut> tjiaf (of^ with ??*' | was (Impersonal), j the subjunctive. In eo [erat] ut (Pausanias) comprehendergtur, NEP.,IV. 5, 1 ; it was on the point that Pausanias should be (P. was on the point of being) arrested. NOTE.— This phrase occurs in NEPOS and LIVY, seldom in earlier writers. B.— Of Past Relations. 250. The Perfect Participle passive is used in combination with sum, / am, and fill, / have been, I was, to express the Pure Perfect and Historical Perfect of the Passive Voice. Eram, / was, and fueram, / had been, stand for the Pluper- fect ; and ero, 1 shall be, and fuero, 7 shall have been, for the Future Perfect. REMARKS. — i. Ful is the favorite form when the participle is fre- quently used as an adjective : convlvium exQrnatum fuit, the banquet was furnished forth ; ful is the rrtcexxary form when the Pf . denotes that the action is ovgr,^uQ g0ne ; amatus ful, / have been loved (but I 1 66 TENSES IN LETTERS. am loved no longer). THe same principle applies to fueram and fuerS, though not so regularly. Simulacrum 6 marmore in sepulcr o positum fait ; hoc quldam homo nobilis deportavit, C., Dom., 43V111 ; a marble effigy WAS deposited in the tomb ; a certain man of rank has carried it off. Arma quae fixa in parietibus fuerant, ea sunt hum! inventa, C., Div., i. 34,74 ; the arms which had been fastened to the walls were found on the ground. Quod tib! fuerit persuasum, huic erit persuasum, C., Rose. Com., i,3 ; what is (shall have proved) acceptable to you will be acceptable to him. 2. To be distinguished is that use of the Pf . where each element has its full force, the Participle being treated as an adjective. In this case the tense is not past. Gallia est omnis dlvisa in partSs tr6s, CAES., B.G., i, 1. NOTES. — 1. The fol, etc., forms are rarely found in CICERO, never in CAESAB, bat are characteristic of LIVT and SAILUST. Z. Forem for essem is common in the Comic Poets, occurs twice in CICERO'S letters (Att., vn. 21,2 ; x. 14,8), never in CAESAR, but in LIVY and NEPOS is very common, and practically synonymous with essem. C.— Periphrastic Conjugation— Passive Voice. 25 1. i . The combination of the Tenses of esse, to be, with the Gerundive (verbal in -ndus), is called the Periphrastic Conju- gation of the Passive, and follows the laws of the simple conju- gation (129). The idea expressed is usually one of necessity. PraepOnenda [est] dlvitiis gloria, C., Top., 22,84 ; glory is to be pre- ferred to riches. 2. According to the rule (217) the Gerundive of intransi- tive verbs can be used only in the Impersonal form : Parcendum est victls, The vanquished must be spared. NOTES. — 1. The Gerundive is a verbal adjective, which produces the effect of a Pro- gressive Participle. Whenever a participle is used as a predicate it becomes character- istic, and good for all time. As amans not only = qul amat, but also = qul amet, so amandus = qul ametur. Compare 438, R. 2. Forem for essem is post-classical and comparatively uncommon. TENSES IN LETTERS. 252. The Eoman letter-writer not unfrequently puts him- self in the position of the receiver, more especially at the beginning and at the end of the letter, often in the phrase Nihil erat (habebam) quod scriberem, / have nothing to write. This permutation of tenses is never kept up long, and applies cnly to temporary situations, never to gen?r?l statements. MOODS. 167 Table of Permutations. scrlbo, I am writing, becomes scribebam. I write, " scrips!, scrips!, I have written, " scripseram. / wrote, scripseram, or remains unchanged. scribam, / shall ivrite, scripturus eram. The adverbial designations of time remain unchanged — or heri, yesterday, becomes pridie. hodie, to-day, quo die" has Htteras cledl, dabam. eras, to-morrow, " posters die, postridie". nunc, "now, " turn. Formias me" continue recipere cogitabam, C., Alt., vu. 15, 3 ; lam think- ing of retiring forthwith to Formiae. Cum mih! dixisset Caecilius puerum s6 Romam mittere, haec scrips! raptim, C., Alt., n. 9, 1 ; as Caecil- ius has told me that he is sending a servant to Rome, I write in a hurry. (Litteras) eram daturus postridie e! qu! mih! primus obviam vSnisset, C., Ait., n. 12, 4 ; I will give the letter to-morrow to the first man that comes my way. NOTE. — CICERO is much more consistent in this tense-shifting than PLINY ; and exceptions are not numerous proportionally : Ego etsi nib.il habeo quod ad t8 scribam, scribe tamen quia t€cum loqu! videor, 0., Ait., xii. 53. MOODS. 253. Mood signifies manner. The mood of a verb signifies the manner in which the predicate is said of the subject. There are three moods in Latin : 1. The Indicative. 2. The Subjunctive. 3. The Imperative. NOTE.— The Infinitive form of the verb is generally, hut improperly, called a mood. The Indicative Mood. 254. The Indicative Mood represents the predicate as a reality. It is sometimes called the Declarative Mood, as the mood of direct assertion. The use of the Latin Indicative diifers little from the English. REMARKS. — i. The Latin language expresses possibility and power, obligation and necessity, and abstract relations generally, as facts; whereas, our translation often implies the failure to realise. Such ex- l68 INDICATIVE MOOD. pressions are : debeo, / ought, it is my duty : oportet, it behooves; necesse est, it is absolutely necessary ; possum, / can, I have it in my power ; eonvenit, it is fitting ; par, aequom est, it is fair; Infinltum, endless; difficile, hard to do ; longum, tedious; and many others ; also the Indie, form of the passive Periphrastic Conjugation. Observe the difference between the use of the Inf. in Eng. and in Latin after past tenses of debeo, possum, oportet, etc. Possum persequi permulta oblectamenta r6rum rusticarum, C., Cat.M., 16, 55 ; / might rehearse very many delights of country life. Longum est persequi militates asinorum, C., N.D., n. 64, 159 ; it would be tedious to rehearse the useful qualities of asses (I will riot do it). Ad mortem te duci oportebat, C., Cat., I. i, 2 ; it behooved you to be (you ought to have been) led to execution (you were not). Volumnia debuit in t8 officiosior esse, et id ipsum, quod fecit, potuit dlligentius facere, C., Fam., xiv. 16 ; it ivas Volumnia 's duty to be (V. ought to have been) more at- tentive to you ; and the little she did do, she had it in her power to do (she might have done) more carefully. Quae condicio non accipienda fuit potius quam relinquenda patria 1 C., Ait., viu. 3, 3 ; what terms ought •not to have been accepted in preference to leaving thy country ? [Eum] vivum illinc exire non oportuerat, C., JU'ur., 25, 51 ; he ought never to have gone out thence alive. The Pf. and Plupf . always refer to a special case. 2. The Impf. as the Tense of Disappointment is sometimes used in these verbs to denote opposition to a present state of things : debe- bam, / ought (but do not) ; poteras, you could (but do not). These may be considered as conditionals in disguise. (See R. 3.) Poteram morbos appellare, sed non conveniret ad omnia, C., Fin., in. 10, 85 ; I might translate (that Greek word) " diseases," but that would not suit all the cases (poteram si conveniret). At poteras, inquis, melius mala ferre silendo, Ov., Tr., v. i, 49 ; " But," you say, " you could (you do not) bear your misfortunes better by keeping silent" (poteras si sileres). 3. The Indie, is sometimes used in the leading clause of condi- tional sentences (the Apodosis), thereby implying the certainty of the result, had it not been for the interruption. The Indie, clause gener- ally precedes, which is sufficient to show the rhetorical character of the construction. With the Impf. the action is often really begun : Labebar longius, nisi me" retinuissem, C., Leg., i. 19, 52 ; I was letting myself go on (should have let myself go on) too far, had I not checked myself. Oinnlno supervacua erat doctrina, si natura sufficeret, QUINT., n. 8, 8 ; training were wholly superfluous, did nature suffice. Prae- clare viceramus, nisi Lepidus recgpisset Antonium, C. , Fam. , xn. 10, 3 ; we had (should have) gained a brilliant victory, had not Lepidus received Antony. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 169 In all these sentences the English idiom requires the Subjv., which is disguised by coinciding with the Indie, in form, except in " were." 4. In general relative expressions, such as the double formations, quisquis, no matter who, quotquot, no matter how many, and all forms in -cumque, -ever, the Indie, is employed in classical Latin where we may use in English a Subjv. or its equivalent : quisquis est, no matter who he is, be, may be ; qualecumque est, whatever sort of thing it is, be, may be. Quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentSs, V., A., n. 49 ; whatever it (may) be, I fear the Danai even when they bring presents. CICERO has occasional exceptions (Ideal Second Person or by attraction) to this rule, and later writers, partly under Greek influence, frequently violate it. Exceptions in early Latin are not common. NOTES.— 1. CICERO introduces (n5n) putaram, " / should (not) have thought so," and malueram, I could have preferred. LUCAN and TACITUS alone imitate the latter ; the former was never followed. Malnei-am, quod erat susceptum ab illls, silentio transiri, C., Alt., n. 19,3. Feriam tua viscera, Magne ; malueram socerl, LUCAN, vni. 521. a. In early Latin, occasionally in the more familiar writings of CICERO, and here and there later we find the Pr. Indie, (in early Latin occasionally the Fut.) used in place of the Subjv. in the Deliberative Question. Compression palma an porrecta ferio 1 PL., Cos., 405. Advolone an maneo ? C., . i //. , xui. 40, 2. Quoi dono lepidum novoin libellum, CAT., i, 1. Subjunctive Mood. 255. The Subjunctive Mood represents the predicate as an idea, as something merely conceived in the mind (abstracts from reality). REMARK. — The Latin Subjv. is often translated into English by the auxiliary verbs may, can, must, might, could, would, should. When these verbs have their full signification of possibility and power, obliga- tion and neces^ty, they are represented in Latin by the corresponding verbs, thus : may, can, might, could by the forms of posse, to be able, licet, it is left free ; will and would by velle, to will, to be willing ; must, by debeo or oportet (of moral obligation), by necesse est (of absolute obligation). Nostras iniurias nee potest nee possit alius ulclsci quani vos, L., xxix. 18, 18 ; our wrongs no other than you has the power or can well have the power to avenge.* NOTE.— In the Latin Subjv. are combined two moods, the Subjv. proper, and the Optative, sometimes distinguished as the moods of the will and the wish. This fusion has rendered it difficult to define the fundamental conceptions of certain constructions. * In this unique passage nee pctest denies with the head, nee possit refusea to believe with the heart. I/O POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE. 256. i. The realisation of the idea may be in suspense, or it may be beyond control. The first, or purely Ideal Subjunc- tive, is represented by the Present and Perfect Tenses ; the second, or Unreal, is represented by the Imperfect and Plu- perfect. NOTES.— 1. The Subjv., as the name implies (subiung5, / sufyoin), is largely used in dependent sentences, and will be treated at length in that connection. 2. The following modifications of the above principles must be carefully observed : (a) The Romans, in lively discourse, often represent the unreal as ideal, that which is beyond control as still in suspense. (596, K. i.) (&) In transfers to the past, the Impf. represents the Pr., and the Plunf. the Pf. Sub- junctive. (510.) 2. The idea may be a view, or a wish. In the first case the Subjunctive is said to be Potential, in the second case Optative. The Potential Subjunctive is nearer the Indica- tive, from which it differs in tone ; the Optative Subjunc- tive is nearer the Imperative, for which it is often used. Potential Subjunctive. 257. i. The Potential Subjunctive represent? the opinion of the speaker as an opinion. The tone varies from vague surmise to moral certainty, from " may " and " might " to " must." The negative is the negative of the Indicative, non. 2. The Potential of the Present or Future is the Present or Perfect Subjunctive. The verification is in suspense, and so future ; the action may be present or future : with Perfect sometimes past. Velim, I should wish; nolim, I should be unwitting ; malim, I should prefer