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The
Mating and Breeding of Poultry
BY
HARRY M. LAMON, Senior Poultryman,
Bureau of Animal Industry
U. S. Department of Agriculture.
ROB R. SLOCUM, Poultryman,
Bureau of Animal Industry^
U. S. Department of Agriculture
ILLUSTRATED
New York Orange Judd Publishing Company, Inc.
London
Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Ltd.
1923
>-
Copyright, 1920, by
Orange Judd Company
All Rights Reserved
Entered at Stationers' Hall London, England
Printed in U. S. A.
^»
©ebicateb
to
fetanbarb JBreb ^oultrj>
bii)itl) i)ai tjab suclj a pvu* founb beneficial influence c:i ti)t great poultrp inbu^trp Of ite ?Hniteli S>tates(.
10459
FOREWORD
TO the man or woman who desires some occupation or activity for a few spare hours as a relief from the fatigue, the strain and the routine of the regular day's work, poultry breeding, whether for the production of exhibition stock or of stock with heavy egg producing ability, is ideal. An intimate understanding of the laws or principles of breeding as well as of their application is necessary for success and poultry breeding is therefore an occupation w^hich demands deep and discriminating thought and whose complex problems are at once a chal- lenge and a stimulation to the intelligence of the breeder as well as being of absorbing interest.
Moreover, the poultry breeder finds opportunity for the expression of his artistic instincts in molding the form or shape of the birds and the color or combination of colors to meet his ideal. In addition, there is the gratification of the sporting instinct, the pleasurable ex- citement of competition- in exhibiting the choicest specimens at the shows and the satisfaction which comes from a win in the realization that the breeder has sur- passed the efforts of his competitors and produced birds superior to theirs.
Let no one to whom poultry breeding appeals hesitate to engage in it on the ground that he has not the room or facilities to enable him to compete with others more favorably situated. With only a back yard or village lot, and with the crudest equipment, it is possible to produce fowls of the highest excellence. Many winning birds in the leading exhibitions are produced by men and women who breed on a very limited scale without farms available for their poultry operations.
vii
Vlll FOREWORD
Poultry shows or exhibitions play a most important part in improving the different breeds and varieties. Not only do they serve to foster competition and create rivalry, thereby increasing interest in breeding, but they also make it possible to compare results. In this way the different breeders have an opportunity to see what other breeders have accomplished and to observe where their birds are strong or weak in comparison. Thus, they learn where they must seek to improve if they expect to work their way to the top or if they expect to stay there once they have arrived.
INTRODUCTION
THE publication here presented represents in its preparation the work of the authors extending over a period of about four years. It was inspired by the ap- parent need of some such guide for those who are be- ginners in breeding standard bred poultry or those whose experience is not as wide as is that of the breeders whose methods of mating are herein set forth.
It must not be misconceived that this publication is designed to or can in any sense replace the American vStandard of Perfection. The Standard of Perfection de- scribes in detail the ideal birds of the different breeds and varieties, and it is perfectly apparent that in order to insure success in attaining these ideals, the first thing to do is to purchase a copy of the Standard and to thor- oughly familiarize oneself with the requirements of the ideal birds so as to have a clear-cut conception in mind of the goal which the breeder desires to reach as nearly as possible. This book is designed to supplement the Standard and to indicate the methods of breeding and mating which will be most likely to produce the results described in the Standard. In doing this, matings as used by many of the foremost and most successful breeders are given, and in addition, the tendencies or defects w^hich are most likely to or which may prove troublesome are indicated and emphasized. In using this book, therefore, it is also necessary to make constant use of and reference to the American Standard of Per- fection.
The matings described are those which breeders desire to use if the proper birds are available. It must be kept in mind, however, that it is never possible to secure
ix
X INTRODUCTION
perfect birds which possess exactly the characteristics desired and the problem often resolves itself into making the best use possible of the birds which the breeder has on hand. In doing this the aim should be to approach the matings as given as closely as possible and to bear in mind the necessity of offsetting any defects in birds which it may be necessary to use by strength in these particulars in the birds of the opposite sex in the mating.
The material contained in this book has been obtained from a wide number of sources. In the main it rep- resents the practice of many of the foremost breeders of the country, together with the information which the authors possess on the subject. It will be noted that in some varieties separate and distinct methods of mating are described which in some cases may seem to be con- tradictory. These reflect the different opinions and methods of the breeders consulted who may be dealing with different blood lines having distinctly different breeding tendencies or who may be able to secure the results desired by dift'erent methods.
The authors wish to take advantage of this oppor- tunity to acknowledge the splendid spirit of co-operation and cordiality of the following breeders in furnishing in- formation and the inestimable aid which this information has been in preparing the book : Newton Adams W. H. Card
Adolph E. Anderson A. O. Carter
Wm. Anderson Carl J. Carter
W. B. Atherton Walter J. Coates
Balch & Brown F. G. Cook
M. S. Barker Xewton Cosh
Frank G. Bean Frank Davey
J. Y. Bicknell ^laurice F. Delano
L. H. Brown L. J. Demberger
C. H. Brundage Robert H. Essex
C. S. Byers U. R. Fishel
INTRODUCTION
XI
James Glasgow
D. M. Green
W. J. Greenman
George W. Hackett
H. B. Hark
A. L. Hathaway
A. C. Hawkins
Wm. A. Hendrickson
S. G. Hoke & Sons
H. I. Hope
J. R. Hucldleston
A. P. Ingraham
Paul Ives
M. R. Jacobus
John D. Jaquins
John C. Kriner
D. G. K} ler
C. H. Latham Alfred Holmes Lewis Thos. Lockwood
J. F. McKay Cecil Manors John S. Martin Stanley Mason George C. Meier Richard Oke Allen G. Oliver
D. L. Orr Charles Pape Frank L. Piatt
J. M. Priske Clyde H. Proper Archie Rawnsley Harold Rawnsley Len Rawnsley F. W. Rogers R. A. Rowan A. O. Schilling Charles H. Shaylor J. W. Shaw H. C. Sheppard Eugene Sites Arthur C. Smith Charles M. Smith Courtland H. Smith Edward F. Smith W. A. Smith A. & E. Tarbox Lewis C. Taylor E. B. Thompson Lester Tompkins H. V. Tormahlen Arthur Trcthaway George W. \\>ed Watson Westfall R. J. Williams Ralph Woodward D. W. Young Walter Young
The authors further wish to acknowledge their deep indebtedness to the following men of the Animal Hus- bandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, L^. S. De- partment of Agriculture, for their critical review of the work and for their many helpful suggestions :
Xn INTRODUCTION
Alfred R. Lee, Animal Husbandman in Poultry Inves- tigations.
J. W. Kinghorne, Junior Animal Husbandman in Poultry Investigations.
D. Lincoln Orr, Extension Poultry Husbandman.
D. M. Green, Extension Poultry Husbandman.
J. P. Quinn, Extension Poultry Husbandman.
Dr. Sevi^all Wright, Senior Animal Husbandman in Animal Genetics.
Still further acknov^^ledgment is due Mr. J. W. King- horne, who has so painstakingly and thoroughly indexed the contents of this book and who has contributed some illustrative drawings.
If the authors have in even a slight degree, accom- plished the purpose which they had in mind in writing this book, namely, to assist beginners or breeders to secure greater success in breeding high class exhibition stock or stock of high egg laying ability, or if they have contributed to bring about these results in a shorter time and thereby have contributed to the advancement of standard bred poultry, they will feel amply repaid for the great amount of work which has gone into its preparation.
PEFINITION OF COMMON BREEDING TERMS
Note — For the definition of terms not included in this list, see the American Standard of Perfection.
Angular Appearaxce — The lack of smoothness in the appearance or outline of fowls caused by the abrupt junction of certain sections so as to form an angle instead of a curve.
Beefy Comb — A comb that is large, thick and of more substance than called for by the Standard.
Beetle Green — A metallic green of considerable luster, similar to the color found on a beetle's back.
Blood Lines — Refers to the breeding or admixture of blood which a fowl possesses. Definite blood lines are the result of a fixed plan of breeding with the consequent concentration to a greater or less degree of the blood of some particular individual, family or strain. Well-established blood lines are characterized by a greater uniformity of the fowls belonging to these lines with respect to some character or set of characters.
Boots — Term used to designate the shank feathering of some of the varieties of Bantams.
Breast, Crooked — The breast or keel bone deformed by being notched, bent, or turned to one side usually due to allowing the birds to roost when too young or to an injury.
Buckled Hock Joints — A term applied to hock joints especially in
Games, which are weak and do not enable the bird to stand erect. Bull Head — A broad, thick head which when found in exhibition
Games is a serious defect. Coarse Comb — One that is large, thick and rough in texture. Cockerel Mating — A mating made for the special purpose of pro
ducing exhibition males when double mating is employed. Combination Mating — A mating where one male is used on two
different types of females. Constitutional Vigor — A combination of those qualities which
make for health, strength and vitality in fowls. Cow Hocked Legs — Legs which curve or bend back at the hock joint
instead of being straight under the fowl.
xiii
XIV DEFixiTiox OF co^f^ro^' BREF.nixr, terms
Crooked Toes — Referring to toes which are other than straight. Crooked Back — A deformity of the back often the result of an
injury which causes it to be turned or twisted or unevenly
developed on one side. Crossing — A mating of fowls of two separate strains, varieties or
breeds. Crow Headed — A long, drawn-out head and beak resembling that
of a crow. Defect — An imperfection or undesirable quality found in a bird
which should be guarded against in selecting exhibition and
breeding birds.
Double Mating — The use of two separate and distinct matings within a single variety, one of which is especially designed to produce exhibition males and the other exhibition females.
Duck Shaped Tail — A broad tail somewhat horizontally spread like a duck's tail.
Flat Shanks — A defect found in some breeds that should have round shanks. The flat portion usually extends up the front of the shank.
Flat Wings — Wings which when folded present a broad, flat sur- face instead of being curved or bowed to conform to the shape of the body.
Gamy Tail — See Whip tail.
Goose Neck — A defective neck formation resembling that of a goose.
Gypsy Faced — Dark purple color of face as found in the Brown Red Game, Black Sumatra and Silkies.
Patchiness — The presence of Irregular spots or patches due to dififerent shades of color or to the uneven distribution or varia- tion in the size of the markings in the feathers of an individual.
Pinched Head — Elongated narrow head.
Pinched Tail — A narrow tail due to the main tail feathers being closely folded instead of well spread.
Pullet Mating — A mating made for the special purpose of pro- ducing exhibition females when double mating is employed.
Purple Barring — A barring of iridescent purple extending across the feathers and more or less commonly found in the plumage of black varieties or of the black sections of other varieties.
Roach Back — A term usually used as synonymous with crooked back. Also used occasionally to denote a curved or arched back.
RusTiNEss — A reddish tinge appearing on the surface feathers.
DEFINITION OF COMMON BREEDING TERMS XV
Sheen — As commonly used indicates the lustrous greenish or purple color occurring on black feathers.
Single Mating — A mating made for the purpose of producing ex- hibition birds of both sexes.
Smoky — An admixture of dark or black in the ground color of feathers, causing a general smudgy or dirty effect as though the feathers had been exposed to smoke. Smokiness usually appears in the main wing and tail feathers.
Smutty — When black, dark or slate of varying intensity occurs in the under color of breeds which should be free from it, the under color is said to be smutty as in the Rhode Island Red. In breeds having plumage which is particolored and one of the colors is black or dark, some of the dark color often extends over into the lighter colored portion of the feathers, destroying its clear- ness and causing it to appear dirty or dingy. It is then said to be smutty as in the Barred Rock.
Split Crest — One that is parted or divided. A defect in crested breeds.
Split Tail — One in which the main tail feathers are divided, leav- ing an open space in the center, through which the sickle feath- ers may and often do fall.
Split Wing — Also known as slipped wing, referring to one that is not properly held in place, but which hangs down partly unfolded.
Stamina — A term used in connection with games indicating health, vigor and endurance.
Standard Mating— See Single Mating.
Stiltiness — The appearance of a bird being out of proportion due to too great a length of leg.
Stud Mating — Referring to the practice of keeping the male birds used in separate quarters or coops and bringing to them as they lay, the females with which they are to be bred.
Tuft — A group of feathers or a tendency toward a small crest ap- pearing on the heads in some breeds.
"U" Shaped Back — A back which owing to the upright position of the tail gi\es the appearance of the letter "U" as in the Langshan or Seabrlght Bantam.
Whip Tail — A very narrow pinched tail ending in a point commonly used in referring to the tail of exhibition Games.
CONTENTS
Foreword
Introductiox
Definition of Common Breeding Terms
CHAPTER I
Principles of Breeding 1
Like produces like — Variation — Sports or mutations — Reversion or Atavism — Environment — Inheritance of acquired characteristics — Regression — Correlation — In- fluence of sire or dam on 'type or color — Contro^ of sex — Prepotenc}^ — Contamination — Mendelism — Sex- linked inheritance.
CHAPTER II Practices of Breeding 19
Breeding tendencies — Selection for vigor — Inbreeding — Line breeding — Outbreeding — Crossing — Grading up — Introducing new blood — Purchasing breeders — Standard • or single mating — Combination mating — Double mating — Fixed plan of breeding — Foreseeing bad tendencies — * Establishment of blood lines — Offsetting the weak points — Grouping of birds for selection of matings — Breeding birds with defects — Breeding birds with disqualifications — Use of tested breeders — Pedigreeing — Record of matings — Description of matings — Stud mating — Alter- nating males — Age of breeders — Size of mating — Breed- ing conditions — Early hatching — Free range versus con- finement — Good management — Culling — Trimming heavy feathered fowls — Combination of utility and quality.
CHAPTER HI P>reeding for Increased Production 54
Importance of vigor and health — How high egg pro- ducing ability is inherited — Breeding from an untrapped flock — Selecting good layers from the untrapped flock — Testing the offspring — Breeding from pen pedigreed flocks — Breeding from trapnested stock — Period of trapping.
xvii
XVlll CONTENTS
CHAPTER IV The American Class 69
The Plymouth Rock— Barred Plymouth Rock— White Plymouth Rock— Buff Plymouth Rock— Silver Penciled Plymouth Rock— Partridge Plymouth Rock — Columbian Plymouth Rock— The Wyandotte— Silver Wyandotte— Golden Wyandotte— White Wyandotte— Buff Wyan- dotte—Black Wyandotte— Partridge Wyandotte— Silver Penciled Wyandotte — Columbian Wyandotte — The Java Black Java— Mottled Java— The Dominique— Single Comb Rhode Island Red — Rose Comb Rhode Island Red — Buckeye.
CHAPTER V The Asiatic Class 131
The Brahma— Light Brahma— Dark Brahma— The Cochin — Partridge Cochin — Buff Cochin — White Cochin — ^^Black Cochin — The Langshan — Black Langshan — White Langshan.
CHAPTER VI The Mediterranean Class 156
The Leghorn — Single Comb Brown Leghorn — Rose Comb Brown Leghorn — Single Comb White Leghorn — Rose Comb White Leghorn — Single Comb Buff Leghorn — Rose Comb Buff Leghorn — Black Leghorn — Silver Leghorn — Red Pyle Leghorn— The Minorca— Single Comb Black Minorca— Rose Comb Black Minorca- Single Comb White Minorca — Rose Comb White Minorca— Single Comb Buff Minorca— The White Faced Black Spanish— The Blue Andalusian— The Ancona — Single Comb Ancona — Rose Comb Ancona.
CHAPTER VII The English Class 192
The Dorking — White Dorking — Silver-Gray Dorking — Colored Dorking — The Redcap — The Orpington — Buff Orpington— Black Orpington — White Orpington— Blue Orpington — The Cornish — Dark Cornish — White Cor- nish—White-Laced Red Cornish— The Sussex — Speckled Sussex — Red Sussex.
CHAPTER VIII The Polish Class 229
The Polish— White-Crested Black Polish— Bearded Golden Polish— Bearded Silver Polish— Bearded White Polish— Buff-Laced Polish— Non-Bearded Golden, Sil- ver and White Polish.
CONTENTS XIX
CHAPTER IX The Hamburg Class 239
The Hamburg — Golden-Spangled Hamburg — Silver- Spangled Hamburg — Golden-Penciled Hamburg — Silver Penciled Hamburg— White Hamburg— Black Hamburg.
CHAPTER X The Frexch Class 253
The Houdan— White Houdan— Mottled Houdan— Crevecoeur — La Fleche — The Salmon Faverolles.
CHAPTER XI The Coxtixental Class 259
The Campine — Silver Campine — Golden Campine.
CHAPTER XII The Game axd Game Baxtam Class 263
The Exhibition Game — The Black-Breasted Red Game — The Brown Red Game — The Golden Duckwing Game — The Silver Duckwing Game — The Birchen Game — The Red Pyle Game— The White Game— The Black Game — The Game Bantam — The Black-Breasted Red Game Bantam — The Brown Red Game Bantam — The Golden Duckwing Game Bantam — The Silver Duckwing Game Bantam — The Birchen Game Bantam — The Red Pyle Game Bantam — The White Game Bantam — The Black Game Bantam.
CHAPTER XIII The Oriextal Class 280
The Black Sumatra — The Black Breasted Red Malay — The Black Breasted Red Malay Bantam.
CHAPTER XIV The Orxamextal Baxtam Class 285
The Sebright Bantam — Golden Sebright Bantam — Silver Sebright Bantam — The Rose Comb Bantam — Rose Comb White Bantam — Rose Comb Black Bantam — The Booted White Bantam — The Brahma Bantam — Light Brahma Bantam — Dark Brahma Bantam — The Cochin Bantam — Buff Cochin Bantam — Partridge Cochin Ban- tam— White Cochin Bantam — Black Cochin Bantam^ The Japanese Bantam — Black Tailed Japanese Bantam — White Japanese Bantam — Black Japanese Bantam — Gray Japanese Bantam — The Polish Bantam — Bearded White Polish Bantam — Buff Laced Polish Bantam — Non-Bearded Polish Bantam — The Mille Fleur Booted Bantam.
XX CONTENTS
CHAPTER XV The Miscellaneous Class 304
The Silkies — The Sultans — The Frizzles.
CHAPTER XVI Preparing Fowl for the Show 307
Time of Hatching — Feeding and Management of Grow- ing Stock — Feeding White Fowls — Value of Shade- Selecting the Birds to be Prepared for the Show — Cooping Birds for Training — Training — Danger of Over-Cooping — Feeding Birds Which Are Being Condi- tioned— Cleaning Shanks and Toes — Washing — Bluing White Birds — Bleaching and Cleaning — Other Care of Plumage — Shipping Birds to the Show — Care of Fowls in the Show — Treatment of Birds After the Show — Making Entries. Index
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. Page Frontispiece
1. Nomenclature Chart of a Male Fowl Opposite 1
2. Male Heads Showing Different Types of Combs 3
3. Female Heads Showing Different Types of Combs 5
4. Male Heads Showing Defective Combs 7
5. Males with Defective Tail Carriage 9
6. Standardbred Flock 13
7. Mongrel Flock 15
8. Barred Plymouth Rock P>male of Low \'igor 20
9. Line Breeding Chart 23
10. Barred Plymouth Rock Female with Black Feathers 30
11. Barred Plymouth Rock Female with Black Feathers
Removed 31
12. Single Comb Showing a Side Sprig 36
13. Marks Possible to Use in Toe Punching Chicks 40
14. Basket and Bag for Pedigree Hatching 41
15. Chick with Pedigree Leg Bands 42
16. Pedigree Band Transferred to the Wing 43
17. Place Where Pedigree Band Is Inserted Through Wing 44
18. Monthly Trap Nest Record 45
19. Good Range for Young Stock 48
20. Wire Covered Feeding Frame to Protect the Smaller
Chicks 50
21. Dry Mash Hopper for Young Stock 51
22. S. C. White Leghorn Cockerel of Fine Quality Out of a
200 Egg Hen
23. S. C. White Leghorn of Fine Quality and High Egg Pro-
duction Blood Lines 55
24. High Producing S. C. White Leghorn Hen of Fine
Quality 58
25. Good Producing White Plymouth Rock Hen of Fine
QuaHty 63
26. Trap Nest in Use 64
27. Trap Nest Record for an Individual Hen 67
xxi
XXU LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fig. Page
28. A Knock-kneed Male 69
29. Stilty Barred Plymouth Rock Male with Flat Breast 70
30. White Plymouth Rock Male with Split Tail 72
31. Barred Plymouth Rock Male with Twisted Wing 73
32. Feathers from a Cockerel Bred Barred Plymouth Rock
Male 77
33. Feathers from a Cockerel Bred Barred Plymouth Rock
Female 79
34. Feathers from a Pullet Bred Barred Plymouth Rock Male 81
35. Feathers from a Pullet Bred Barred Plymouth Rock
Female 83
36. Comparison of Cockerel and Pullet Bred Barred Plym-
outh Rock Cockerels 85
37. Comparison of Cockerel and Pullet Bred Barred Plym-
outh Rock Pullets . 86
38. Well Marked Partridge Plymouth Rock Feathers 93
39. Buff Wyandotte Male Showing Typical Defects 98
40. White Wyandotte Male with Too Long Tail Feathers 101
41. Well Marked Silver Wyandotte Feathers 103
42. Standard Colored Silver Wyandotte Male 104
43. Hen Feathered Silver Wyandotte Male 105
44. Well Marked Mottled Java Feathers 120
45. Well Marked Dominique Feathers 122
46. Split Wing Folded 12C
47. Split Wing Spread 127
48. Well Spread Tail of Light Brahma Male 133
49. Well Marked Light Brahma Feathers 135
50. Light Brahma Male Showing Good Black Markings 137
51. Bluish Slate Undercolor of Light Brahma Female 139
52. Cockerel Bred Dark Brahma Male 141
53. Pullet Bred Dark Brahma Male 143
54. Well Marked Dark Brahma Feathers 144
55. S. C. White Leghorn Cockerel of Excellent Type 156
56. S. C. White Leghorn Cock Settled with Age 157
57. S. C. White Leghorn Male with Too Sloping a Body 158
58. S. C. White Leghorn Female with Too High Carried Tail 159
59. S. C. White Leghorn Female with Pinched Tail 160
60. Single Comb with Notched Blade. 161
61. W^ell Marked Brown Leghorn Feathers 164
62. White in Face of S. C. Black Minorca Cock 175
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XXlll
Fig. Page
63. Well Marked Blue Andalusian Feathers 182
64. Black Andalusian Male 183
65. Black Andalusian Female 184
66. Splashed White Andalusian Male 185
67. Splashed White Andalusian Female 186
68. Well Marked Ancona Feathers 189
69. S. C. Ancona Female Too Light in Color 190
70. Well Marked Silver Gray Dorking Feathers 195
71. Well Marked Colored Dorking Feathers 198
72. Well Marked Red Cap Feathers 200
73. Dark Cornish Male Showing Compact Low Set Body — 209
74. Well Marked Dark Cornish Feathers 213
75. Well Marked \\hite Laced Red Cornish Feathers 219
76. Well Marked Speckled Sussex Feathers 223
77. Bearded Golden Polish Male with Lightly Feathered
Crest 230
78. Well Marked Silver Polish Feathers 236
79. Silver Polish Pullet Showing Reverse in Markings of
Crest and Body Feathers 237
80. Well Marked Golden Spangled Hamburg Feathers 241
81. AVell Marked Silver Spangled Hamburg Feathers 243
82. Hen Feathered Silver Spangled Hamburg Male 244
83. Cockerel Bred Golden Penciled Hamburg Female 245
84. Feathers from a Hen Feathered Golden Penciled Ham-
burg Male 246
85. Pullet Bred Golden Penciled Hamburg Female 247
86. Well Marked Silver Penciled Hamburg Feathers 249
87. Feathers from a Hen Feathered Silver Penciled Hamburg
Male 250
88. Head of Houdan Male 253
89. Well Marked Salmon Faverolles Feathers 257
90. Well Marked Silver Campine Feathers 260
91. Well Marked Red Pyle Game Feathers 272
92. Well Marked Birchen Game Bantam Feathers 278
93. Black Sumatra Male Showing Characteristic Tail 280
94. Well Marked Black Breasted Red Malay Bantam Feathers 283
95. Well Marked Silver Sebright Bantam Feathers 288
96. Well Marked Mille Fleur Bantam Feathers 302
i:y£-
T/ilL
cov£Rt;s
Fig 1— Nomenclature Chart of a Male Fowl
XXIV
CHAPTER I PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING
This book deals with the different varieties of chickens described in the American Standard of Perfection and the principles of breeding in order to produce specimens of a high degree of excellence and obtain as great a proportion as possible of good quality. Breeding chickens with this object in view is a very old pursuit and engages the attention and interest of a great number of individuals. Were the problem of mating simply that of selecting individuals possessing the desired characteristics with the certainty that the offspring would be identical in character with the parents, it would be a comparatively simple one. As a mat- ter of fact, it is not a simple question of like producing like, and for this reason the successful breeding of chickens of high quality is a difficult problem requiring the most pains- taking care and study, and good results are obtained with a reasonable degree of certainty only as the result of long experience.
Before describing the matlngs which the experience of breeders has shown are most likely to give good results, it is desirable to consider briefly certain laws or principles of breeding which are more or less commonly met with in breeding and with the results of which, if not their theory, experienced breeders are familiar.
Like produces like. — This Is a common expression em- ployed by breeders. Within certain limits it is true. It means simply that there Is usually a strong resemblance be- tween parents and offspring, stronger than that between the offspring and unrelated fowls. Thus when two fowls of the same breed or variety, which are from stock which has had no foreign blood introduced for a considerable time, are
A THE MATING AXD BREEDING OF POULTRY
mated together, the offspring will all, or nearly all, resemble the parents quite closely in so far as the breed or the variety characteristics are concerned, and usually also with respect to some of the individual peculiarities of one or both of the parents. Pure-bred White Leghorns will produce offspring which are palpably White Leghorns both in type and color ; Barred Plymouth Rocks will produce Barred Plymouth Rocks, etc. The offspring are likely also to inherit in some degree the shape of the parents, the comb peculiarities or other similar traits. It must be borne in mind, however, that it is impossible to select parents which are identical in their characteristics, and as each parent may and does have an influence upon the offspring, it can be easily understood why the offspring may not be identical with one or either of the parents. It must also be remembered that the grand- parents, and in turn their parents and the ancestors still further back, all exert some influence and tend to bring about variation.
Variation. — The differences which exist between the off- spring and their parents, or between offspring from the same mating, range from those rather slight in degree to those which are quite marked. P'or example, from a Rhode Island Red mating in which both parents are of fairly good color and free from smut in undercolor, there may be obtained offspring ranging from very light, poorly colored birds to dark, good colored birds, and from those with a clear red undercolor to those showing white or to those showing smut in undercolor. The offspring may therefore not only differ markedly from one another, but may also differ greatly from their parents, and may vary from those much poorer than the parent stock to those much better than the parent stock. It is the selection of those individuals showing variation in the desired direction that constitutes most of the endeavor in breeding. It is by the use of such individuals that breed- ers expect to make progress in their breeding operations. In the long run, this is usually a successful means of obtaining
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING
improvement, as the success of countless breeders will testify.
Sports or mutations. — Occasionally there occur indi- viduals with characteristics which differ very markedly either in kind or in degree from those possessed by any of the
MALE BEADS SHOWING DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMBS
|
I SINGLE |
2 PEA |
3 PEA |
|
4 ROSE |
5 SINGLE |
6 SINGLE |
|
7 \/ SHAPED |
a ROSE |
9 STPAWBERSr |
Fifir. 2. (From the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture.)
4 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
known ancestors. These individuals are known as sports or mutations. Usually there is a marked tendency for sports to breed true, and consequently if the sport happens to be of a desirable kind, it may result in much more rapid or much greater improvement than could have been obtained by the more gradual process of selecting less marked variations. Tlie White Plymouth Rock is said to have arisen from white chicks produced from a Barred Plymouth Rock mating, and the former variety is commonly considered to be a sport from the latter.
Reversion or atavism. — By reversion or atavism is meant the appearance in the offspring of characteristics which do not exist in the immediate parents or ancestry, but which did exist in some of the ancestors several generations back. This is a common occurrence and is generally recognized and understood by breeders. Sometimes the reversion goes far back to some character in the distant ancestry, and this may be so far back that the breeder has no knowledge that such characters existed, with the result that the reappear- ance of the character puzzles him. An example of a common reversion is the continued reappearance of stubs on the shanks of Wyandottes and Plymouth Rocks, or of the down which occasionally appears between the toes of Leghorns, in spite of the use for generations of clean legged birds as breeders. The appearance of these rudimentary feathers undoubtedly is a reversion back to birds with feathered shanks which have been used at some distant time in making the breed. The more recently such birds have been used in the breeding, the more frequent and the more troublesome are such reversions. It is unwise to use individuals for breeding which show such a tendency toward reversion, particularly if the reversion is frequent in appearance.
Environment. — The conditions under which poultry grow and live may afifect their development and may thus cause a modification in the size or type of the fowls. The environ- mental conditions which most commonly afifect poultry are
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 5
climate, feed and the various features of management, in- cluding housing, feeding and care of the eggs during incuba- tion, and of the chicks during the growing period. Environ- mental conditions, particularly those of climate, may cause a modification of size or type, but affect the fowls, it is now believed, only in the way of preventing them from develop- ing their inherited characteristics to the fullest extent, and do not interfere with the transmission of these. The effort should be made to control or modify environment in so far
FEMALE HEAD^ SHOWING DIFFEmrr TYPES OFCOMB^.
i ^NCLE 2 PEA 3 ROSE
4 ^INCLE 5 ^IHCLE 6 ROSE
Fig. 3.
(From the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture.)
as possible, so that it will be favorable for the full develop- ment of desired characters, such as high ^gg production, which are inherited by the fowls.
6 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
Inheritance of acquired characters. — The question arises whether or not characters which are due to environment, and which are commonly called acquired characters, are inherit- able or transmissible. For example, is the greater size which a certain variety of chickens may reach, and which is due to climatic conditions, passed on to the offspring? It must be remembered, in considering this question of the inheritance of acquired characters, that in many cases the modification which may be observed in a race, while apparently due to the inheritance of characters modified by environment, is proba- bly often due to the fact that individuals which do not show characters varying in this direction are unsuited for the particular environment under which they are living, and are therefore gradually eliminated by the process of natural selection, while the individuals varying in the direction in which the modification has occurred were especially well fitted for the environment under which they live. Under these conditions the modification which occurs will be largely if not entirely due to the process of natural selection, rather than to the inheritance of acquired characters.
In general, it may be said that unless environment has a modifying effect upon the germinal material of the individual concerned, the acquired character cannot be inherited. Ex- periments indicate that the germinal material is very difficult to affect in any way. It may be said that the weight of evi- dence is at present against the view that acquired characters are inherited.
In this connection it may be well to call attention to the matter of whether or not mutilations or deformities are in- herited. Deformities due to faulty development, either embryonic or in the later life of the chick, or mutilations which may occur are very rarely if ever inherited. Thus we find that a fowl which has lost a toe is no more likely to pro- duce offspring minus a toe than are those with all their toes intact. The long continued custom of game breeders in dubbing, or shearing off the combs of the males, has pro-
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING
duced no appreciable tendency for the offspring to come without combs. It may be safely said, therefore, that poultry breeders need feel no concern over the possibility of mutilations and but little over deformities being inherited, except such as seem to be in the blood of the fowls, as evidenced by their frequent occurrence in the various generations.
MALE HEAD^ ^OmHa DEFECTIVE CQMB^.
1 THUMB MARK. Z LOPPED (^IN6LE) 3. HOLLOW CENTER
4 ;5IDE ^PRIG- 5 UNEVEN /SE2£Anorp. d TWISTED
Fig. 4.
(From the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.)
Regression. — By regression is meant the general tendency for the offspring of a mating to be, on the average, nearer the mean, or average for the race, than were the parents composing the mating. If the parents are selected indi- viduals, well above the average with respect to any character
8 THE MATING AND BREEDING CE POULTRY
or set of characters, the ofTspring will average poorer than the parents and be nearer the average for the race. On the other hand, if the parents are below the average for the race, the offspring still tend to be nearer the average than their parents, and therefore to be better than their parents. Since, in breeding poultry, the effort is always made to have the individuals composing the mating well above the average, it is the tendency toward a lower average in the offspring which particularly concerns the breeder. He must continu- ously fight this tendency to go back toward the average, and this must be done by continued selection.
It is this law of regresssion which makes it necessary for a breeder to continue to select with the greatest care, even after he has attained to a high degree of excellence in his flock, for just the minute he stops with the idea that he can rest on his laurels and maintain the degree of quality which he has secured, he will find that he is losing ground.
Correlation. — When it is observed that a certain char- acter is likely to be associated with a certain other character, there is said to be a correlation between these characters. There is undoubtedly some general correlation of characters in poultry. Correlation is quite subject to breeding and selection, but when one desires to secure certain results in breeding, the characters which usually go together should be considered in selecting a type or standard for an ideal. Cor- relation may be of much value in fixing types, or, on the other hand, it may prove troublesome. It is usually true that males which are inclined to be too leggy are also inclined to be flat or lacking in breast. It also seems to be general observation that high egg production in any breed or variety is more likely to be associated with females which are not above the average size for the breed than with females which are much above the average size for the breed. A white shelled egg and white ear lobes are usually correlated, and breeds or individuals are rare which show good red ear lobes and which produce white shelled eggs.
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 9
Influence of the sire or dam on type and color. — The opinion is frequently held by breeders that the parents of one sex have more influence on type or shape, and those of the other sex upon color.
Unfortunately, the breeders are themselves divided as to which sex exerts the influence upon color, and which upon type. The fact seems to be that in general there is equal inheritance from the sexes in all characteristics. The real exceptions include a few characteristics of various kinds which are linked with sex in inheritance in such a way that there is no transmission from dam to daughters. These so- called sex-linked characters are discussed in a later section. Apparent exceptions may arise from differences in the pre- potency of individuals. It may happen in a particular mating that the male is prepotent in color and the female in type, but in another mating the situation may be reversed, or else some one parent may be prepotent in both respects. There is, in short, no general law connecting prepotency and sex.
MALE^ YflTH DEFECTIVE TAL CA2mCE
1 ^qUI£2EL E yflTf
Fig. 5. (From the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture.)
Control of sex. — The control of the sex of offspring in chickens, as well as other domestic animals, is a question, the solution of which has long been sought. Many theories
10 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
have been advanced and some breeders believe that they can control to some extent at least the sex of the offspring. The most commonly advanced theory among chicken breeders is the claim that a cockerel mated to hens will give a greater proportion of females than males, while a cock mated to pullets will give a greater proportion of males. This theory is doubtless nearly if not quite identical with that advanced by some breeders of other domestic animals, and seems to depend upon the idea that the more mature parent is sexu- ally more vigorous than the less mature parent, with the result that more of the oft'spring will be of that sex. No experimental work or carefully kept records have as yet given good support to this idea and it is impossible to give it much credence. Indeed, at the present time it may be said with full assurance that no method has been found which will control at will the sex of the offspring in chickens.
It is, moreover, very doubtful whether any such method is possible. The mechanism by which sex is normally deter- mined is now well understood, but unfortunately Is a mechanism which seems to be beyond human control. In poultry, the males produce only one kind of germ cell, but the females produce two kinds In approximately equal numbers. One of these kinds develops into males, the other into females. The potentiality of an egg in this respect depends on the presence or absence of a small body (the X chromosome), which goes into the egg at a very early stage, or is discarded, wholly by chance.
Prepotency. — Prepotency is the word used to describe the ability of an individual to impress its characters or qualities upon its offspring. An individual may be termed prepotent either when It can transmit a certain character or set of characters to a considerable proportion of its offspring to an appreciable degree, or when it can transmit some character or set of characters to one or a few offspring to a very high degree. Thus we might speak of a W^hite Wyandotte male of outstanding excellence of type as prepotent if he could
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 11
transmit this excellence of type in a high degree to only one or two of his sons or daughters. Or we might speak of him as prepotent if he could transmit this excellence of type in a high degree, or even in a less high degree, to 50 or 60 per cent of his offspring. Again, we might speak of a Leghorn male as prepotent with respect to the character of egg pro- duction, if he were able to transmit to only one or two daughters the ability to lay 250 eggs, even though the rest of his daughters were below the average in that respect ; or we might call him prepotent if he could transmit to 50 per cent or more of his daughters the ability to lay more than the average, say 180 eggs. The first of these instances may be said to represent prepotency in degree, and the second pre- potency in numbers. Most poultry breeders in speaking of prepotency mean prepotency in numbers rather than pre- potency in degree.
As can readily be seen, this quality of prepotency, when manifested in a desirable direction, is an extremely valuable one, and one of which the wise breeder takes full advantage. Once a bird, either male or female, has proven its pre- potency, it should be used as a breeder just so long as it is in breeding condition. The only known method by which pre- potency can be developed in a flock is through close breed- ing, a system which is discussed later.
Contamination. — The theory of contamination has never been so strongly or so widely held among poultrymen as among breeders of other animals, particularly dogs and horses, probably largely because the chick does not develop to an appreciable degree within the body of the mother. By contamination is meant that the service of a male upon a female, or the growth of an embryo within the female as the result of such service, has a lasting effect upon the female, so that succeeding offspring, although by different males, will bear a resemblance to the first or previous male or males. Such an influence or contamination, even if it existed, would have no perceptible or at least no important
12 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
effect as long as the female and the different males were of the same variety in chickens or breed in the case of other animals. But if one of the males were of a different variety or breed, such contamination would immediately have an important and a disastrous effect. For were there such con- tamination, a \\'hite Leghorn hen, for example, which had been bred to a Silver Spangled Hamburg male would no longer have any value as a breeder of White Leghorn chick- ens, even when mated to White Leghorn males, since the chickens would show the influence of contamination due to the Hamburg male. The theory of contamination finds little support from poultry breeders, as there are no reliable authentic records to support it, while it is common practice to allow hens to run with males of a variety other than their own and to breed them subsequently to males of their own kind without the slightest bad effect. It is easy to account for the supposed observed cases of contamination by the accidental mating, without the breeders' knowledge, of the hen with another male than the one with which she is supposed to be mated.
Mendelism. — In the preceding sections, we have at- tempted to present the leading principles of breeding as they have been brought out by practical experience. It should be added that a great deal has been discovered in recent years about the laws of heredity, which underlie these practical principles. It'^would, however, go beyond the scope of this book to go into the subject in detail. There are a number of books on the subject which may be recommended to those who are interested. The following may be mentioned: ''Genetics in Relation to Agriculture," by E. B.
Babcock and R. E. Clausen, 1918. "Genetics and Eugenics," by W. E. Castle,
1916. ''Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity," by
Morgan, Sturtevant, Muller and Bridges,
1915.
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING
13
14 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
According to earlier views, heredity was looked upon as fluid in nature. We still use such expressions as half blood, quarter blood, etc., which convey this idea. It now appears, however, that the hereditary material is composed of units which are handed on almost indefinitely without change. Their behavior may be compared better to that of little solids contained in the germ cell than to fluids. The variations in most characteristics, it is true, depend on so many of these units that the mode of inheritance after crossing may still be compared roughly to the blending of fluids. A compari- son of the hereditary basis of a characteristic to a pile of shot is better, however, when it comes to explaining the effects of inbreeding, the nature of prepotency, etc.
A few characteristics depend on such a small number of units that the effects of the different ones are easily followed in crosses. Mendel's law of heredity was originally dis- covered in these simple cases. It is now considered probable that Mendel's law is the general law for all heredity, but it is difficult to demonstrate except where the number of units is small, and hence is in most cases of little more than theoreti- cal importance.
Certain cases of simple Mendelian inheritance frequently come under the eye of the poultryman who makes crosses. A^n illustration, let us consider what happens when a fowl from a strain which produces rose combs only is mated with a single comb, which, as breeders know, breeds true. The offspring all have rose combs. Rose comb is said to be dominant over single comb. The crossbreds breed very differently, however, from their rose comb parent. They breed as if half of their germ cells (spermatozoa in the male, eggs in the females) transmit ros^^omb_only, while half transmit single comb only. This is easily seen on crossing them with single combs, in which case they produce 50 per cent rose combs and 50 per cent single combs. The rose combs of this generation, when crossed with single combs again, produce 50 per cent rose combs and 50 per cent single
16 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF TOULTRY
combs, although the chicks are seven-eighths blood single comb. This system of mating can be carried on indefinitely, the rose comb chicks always producing 50 per cent rose combs and 50 per cent single combs, regardless of the amount of blood from single comb strains. When two of these crossbred rose combs of any generation are mated with each other, 25 per cent of the chicks will have single combs. The reason is easily seen. Half of the eggs transmit single comb and half of these, or one-quarter of all eggs, will, by chance, be fertilized by spermatozoa which transmit single comb, the result being that 25 per cent of the chicks fail to get rose comb from either parent and so are single combs. Conversely, it is easy to see that there will be another 25 per cent of the chicks which get rose comb from both parents and will breed like pure rose combs, although in blood they may be almost wholly of a single comb strain. The remain- ing 50 per cent of the chicks get rose comb from one parent, single comb from the other, and breed like the original cross- breds, that is, half their germ cells transmit rose comb and half single comb.
In this case, one of the opposed characteristics (rose comb) was dominant over the other (single comb). This is very often the case, but it is not a general rule. The Blue Andalusian fowl resembles the crossbred rose combs in that it produces two kinds of germ cells in equal numbers. A chick produced by the union of like germ cells from a pair of Blue Andalusians is either a splashed white or a black (which may be mixed with red or other colors, dependent on other hereditary units). Blues must receive the factor for black from one parent and that for white from another. Thus the mating of blue by blue produces 25 per cent black, 50 per cent blue and 25 per cent splashed white, no matter how much blue ancestry there is. 'The only Avay to obtain 100 per cent blue is to cross with edch other the blacks and whites derived from Andalusian stcvck. It may be well to add that while twice as many blues' are obtained by this
PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 17
method as by crossing blues with each other, the quality of blue may be expected to be poorer because of working in the dark in selecting the parents.
In the ordinary breeding operations of the man dealing with a pure breed or variety, Mendel's law will have little practical application. It is in crossing for the purpose of securing new combinations of characters that it may have a place. The fact that some characters may be crossed with- out blending and can be extracted again in a pure state in a short time is of value in securing the new combination of characters desired. Most breeders, however, find this law difficult to understand and confusing, and make little con- scious use of it in their breeding operations. IMoreover, relatively few characters seem to behave as typically unit characters, and if their behavior is Alendelian it is probably obscured by the fact that they are not simple unit characters, but are complex characters in themselves, more than one factor being involved in their make-up and reacting possibly in different directions with results which are not ^lendelian in a sharp, clear-cut manner in so far as their interpretation is concerned by the average individual.
Sex-linked inheritance. — It has already been noted that in poultry the females produce two kinds of eggs, those which can develop into males and those which can develop into females, while males produce only one kind of germ cell. It happens that certain hereditary factors are linked with sex in such a way that females cannot transmit them in the eggs which are to develop into females. The theory is that the female-determining eggs are such because they lack a certain material body which is present in the male-deter- mining eggs. Hereditary units which are transmitted in this same material body may or may not be present in the germ cells of males or in the male-determining eggs of the females, in all of which the material body is present, but they can never be transmitted in the female-determining eggs, in which the material body is absent. For example, the Barred
18 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
Plymouth Rock male can transmit barring both to his male and female offspring, while the Barred Plymouth Rock female is limited in transmitting barring to her male off- spring only. This is, of course, not apparent when a Barred Plymouth Rock male and female are mated together, for the offspring of both sexes inherit barring from the male parent. When, however, the Barred Plymouth Rock is mated with a non-barred variety, it immediately becomes apparent. If a Barred Plymouth Rock male is mated with Dark Cornish females, all the resulting oft'spring, both male and female, will be barred. Since this barring could not come from the females, it must have been inherited by both sexes from the male parent. If, on the other hand. Barred Plymouth Rock females are mated with a Dark Cornish male, only the male offspring will be barred. It is apparent, therefore, that the Barred Plymouth Rock females could transmit barring to the male offspring only and not to the female offspring.
CHAPTER II PRACTICES OF BREEDING
Breeding tendencies. — Different strains or stocks of the same variety may and usually do have different breeding tendencies. Just what these tendencies are can be determined only by an intimate acquaintance with and close study of the stock in question, as the result of breeding for some time. Such a knowledge is most essential for success, and the breeder who fails to study his stock for this purpose w^ill not attain the highest success. Knowing the breeding tenden- cies enables the breeder to count upon those tendencies which are strong in the right direction and at the same time enables him to take especial pains to guard against undesirable tendencies in making up his matings. Knowledge of the breeding tendencies will often have an important bearing on the selection of individual birds to be used in a mating and renders the selection of the individuals as breeders much less of a matter of guesswork. For example, if a flock of White Plymouth Rocks seldom produces individuals showing slipped wings, it might be desirable and wise to use a bird showing this defect if he possessed certain other qualifica- tions of an outstanding character, whereas if the flock showed a tendency toward slipped wings it would be unwise to use such a bird.
It is pretty generally recognized that even an experienced breeder may purchase the best stock obtainable of any variety and still be unable to keep the quality of the stock up to that attained by its former owner, at least for some years. This is due to the fact that he is unfamiliar with its breeding tendencies and must breed the stock for several years before learning just what its breeding tendencies are,
19
20
THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
Selection for vigor. — The vigor of the stock must be kept up. If this is not done, bad resuks will be obtained in fer- tility, hatchability and the rearing of the young stock. Suc- cess, whether in utility or exhibition stock, or both, depends upon the ability to keep the flock healthy and upon the ability of the birds to breed, of the eggs to hatch and of the chicks to be raised and to make good growth. Selection for vigor is, therefore, most important; it is fundamental. The breeder must not be blinded by excellence of color to the necessity for vigor, strength and constitution. It is not al- ways possible to select the most vigorous birds, but the appearance of the fowls and their actions are a pretty reli- able index to their health, vigor and condition. Fowls which show good, bright color of eye and head parts, glossy, clean
plumage, fairly good substance of bone, and which are active and sprightly in carriage and have made good, continuous growth are usu- ally strong, vig- orous individu- als. Avoid fowls which show sunken eyes, long, narrow, snaky heads, toes long for the breed, and which are list- less and inactive, and whose growth has been slow, uneven, or unbalanced.
Fig^. 8. Barred Plymouth Rock female of low vigor
showing slipped wing and crow head. (Photograph
from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States
Department of Agriculture.)
PRACTICES OF BREEDIXG 21
Males, especially those over one year old, sometimes be- come weak in their hock joints. They show this by standing unsteadily on their legs and raise their feet unusually high in stepping. Males which are too long in leg seem to be more susceptible to this condition. Such males should not be used as breeders, for they are not likely to fertilize many eggs.
Inbreeding. — Inbreeding is the mating of related Indi- viduals. It is a practice commonly used by breeders for the purpose of concentrating the blood of individuals or families which show the desired characters or quality. 'It may be said wijth_certainty that practically no outstanding success in breeding has been made without a considerable amount of inbreeding. The great strides which have been made in the improvement of breeds or varieties are due to such intensi- fication or purification of the blood of outstanding or espe- cially valuable individuals or families of the breed or variety. Such intensification of blood aims at and results in making the characteristics of the individuals or families so used breed more true./
But while inbreeding results in the intensification of the good qualities of the individuals used, it also results in the intensification of all the characters of such in- dividuals. It is here that the danger of inbreeding lies, for if there happens to be, as there usually are, bad char- acters or weaknesses in the individuals, these are in- tensified as \vell. For this reason where inbreeding is practiced, too great care cannot be exercised in the se- lection of the individuals used, to see that they have no particularly bad traits, and to make sure that they are vigorous and of strong constitution. \Mthout such care in the selection of the individuals inbreeding is. in the end almost sure to result in failure. The closest forms of inbreeding, such as son on mother, daughter on father or full brother and sister, are sometimes called in and in breeding.
22 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
Where inbreeding is practiced the greatest watch- fulness should be exercised to discover the first signs of any weakness or bad effects. If these appear it is then time to abandon, in some of the matings at least, such close inbreeding as is being practiced and to attempt the cautious introduction of new blood.
/ ' As an example of what can be done in inbreeding without detriment to the stock, may be cited the case of a breeder who, starting with a trio of birds, has bred for thirteen years without the introduction of a drop of new blood. During this period he has improved size, egg production and color and has seen no weaknesses de- velop which can be attributed to inbreeding.
Line breeding. — Line breeding is a form of systematic inbreeding in which an effort is made to keep away from too close inbreeding. It is really in its ordinary use, breeding confined to the blood lines of a single family. The details of this practice vary considerably with the different breeders, but the purpose is the same in each case, namely, to avoid the necessity of introducing blood of another strain or family with the disastrous results to the uniformity of the strain which often accompanies such an introduction of blood. Line breeding, whether known by this name or not, is almost universally used by successful breeders, but is often accompanied by the occasional and judicious introduction of outside blood. The chart following, Fig. 9, shows one method of line breeding. In this chart. Circle 1 represents a male and Circle 2 a female, whose blood it is desired to use in the line breeding without the introduction or at any rate without the frequent introduction of new blood. Male 1 mated with female 2 gives offspring 3, which are one-half each of the blood of the male and the female. A male from 3 mated with the original female 2 gives offspring 6, which are three-quarters of the blood of the female. Sim- ilarly, a female from 3 mated with the original male 1
PRACTICES OF BREEDING
23
gives offspring 4, which are three-quarters of the blood of the male. A male from 7 mated with a female from 4 gives offspring 9, which are 13-16ths of the blood of the male. Further, a male from 9 mated with a female from 7 gives offspring 13, which are 27-32nds of the blood of
I \ ^»\^ ^
i^ hH ifX -® ^^€)
Fig. 9 — Line Breeding Chart — The circles represent individuals or groups of individuals used in the breeding or resulting from the matings made. Black represents the male line and white the female line, the relative amount of each color in a circle as well as the fractional figures at the side indicating the relative amount of each blood carried. 1!he large number at the top of each circle is given to it so as to make the discussion of the matings in the text clear and easy to follow. A solid black line connecting one circle with an- other indicates that a male from the first group was used in the mating to produce the second group, while a dotted line indicates that a female was used. The shaded circle at the lower right-hand comer indicates the intro- duction of a third blood line, and circle 18 shows the proportion of the three bloods in the resulting offspring. (After Felch, Pierce and Lippincott.)
%
24 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
the male. As will be apparent frcJm the chart, various other matings are possible and even some which are not shown, all of w^hich would have the effect of producing ft"spring w^ith varying preponderance of the male blood. Exactly similar matings are possible as shown which ^'ill result in the same preponderance of the blood of the ^^B^iale. At any time, by mating individuals from groups which show on the one hand a certain proportion of the male blood and on the other hand the same proportion of the female blood, it is possible to get back to the half blood basis. Thus, a male from group 7 mated with a female from group 8 results in the half bloods of group 10. Similarly a male from group 9 mated wdth a female from group 11 results in the half bloods of group 14.
It will be noted from the chart that in the line breeding it is possible by beginning wath two individuals or two blood lines to keep the matings wdthin these tw^o lines, but to have a wide variation in the proportion of each in the stock. It is possible to breed back toward the male line to such an extent as to eliminate largeh^ the female blood or to do the same thing toward the female line. When a group is secured wath such a proportion or mixture of blood as to give outstanding results it is pos- sible to continue the breeding so as to hold the same proportion of blood as long as desired or as long as there is no sign of detriment. This can be easily accomplished by selecting for a mating both males and females from the same group. Because each parent has the same pro- portion of blood, the offspring will likewise carry this same proportion. Thus, a male from group 3 mated with a female from group 3 results in offspring 5, which have one-half of the blood of male and female lines alike the same as the parent stock. In the same way a male from group 9 mated with a female from group 9 w^ould result in offspring having 13-16ths of the blood of the male line.
PRACTICES OF BREEDING 25
While the chart shows that a male is selected from a certain group to mate with a female from another group, to secure the results indicated, it must be understood; that after the matings have progressed beyond the use of the original male or female, the reciprocal of such a mating may be used, with identical results so far as tbe proportions of the blood are concerned. Instead of mating a male from 7 with a female from 4 to produce group 9 having 13-16ths of the female blood, a male from 4 mated with a female from 7 would give offspring which would also have 13-16ths of the male blood.
The combination of 14 and 17 shows how new blood may be introduced if desired. A female from a new blood line mated with a male from 14 results in offspring 18, w^hich have one-half of the blood of the new line, one- fourth of the blood of the original male line and one-fourth of the blood of the original female line. This new blood could be crossed in on individuals showing either more or less than one-half of the blood of either of the original lines, the effect being to increase the percentage of the blood of one of the original lines beyond one-fourth and ap- proaching more nearly to one-half, with a corresponding decrease in the amount of the blood of the other original lines. A female from 17 mated with a male from 16 would result in offspring which are 32-64ths of the blood of 17, 21-64ths of the blood of 2, and ll-64ths of the blood of 1. A female from 17 mated with a male from 12 would reverse the proportion of the blood of 1 and 2, resulting in oft'spring which are 32-64ths of the blood of 17, ll-64ths of the blood of 2, and 21-64ths of the blood of 1.
Out breeding. — This term as used by poultrymen usually signifies the introduction of Mood of some other strain or some other flock_than_ that with which the breeder is working, but of the same variety. It is re- sorted to for the purpose of keeping up the vigor and
26 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
vitality of the stock or in some cases in an attempt to improve the quality of the stock by the use of blood from stock which the breeder believes to be superior to his own. It must be kept in mind in making such a step that such out breeding has a tendency to destroy the uniformity of the flock in some respects and may have exactly the effect, although in lesser degree, that would follow crossing with a dift'erent variety or breed. The desirability of out breeding will depend upon the prob- ability of an improvement from such a step and upon the necessity for introducing new blood to keep up vigor. Where the main purpose of the poultryman is the pro- duction of meat or eggs, and where he cares little for the uniformity of his flock from the show room point of view, it is common practice to out breed every year or two by the purchase and use of new males. As long as he uses males of the same variety as his flock and takes pains to select vigorous, healthy stock, this plan of breeding doubtless has advantages. It is a decided mistake, how- ever, to use males of dift'erent varieties or breeds in intro- ducing new blood, as it can only result in securing a product either in meat or eggs which lacks uniformity and consequently suft"ers in its market quality. Where a breeder has developed a strain of fowls of especially fine quality or where he has developed a high egg laying strain, he should hesitate a long time before he introduces new blood, and if he decides to do so, should use caution as to the method by which he does it.
Crossing. — By crossing is meant the mating of in- dividuals of dift'erent breeds or varieties. This is some- times resorted to by breeders for the purpose of strength- ening or improving characteristics of color or type. An example of this is the use of Black Breasted Red Games on Golden Duckwing Games to strengthen the Golden Duckwing color. Crossing is also resorted to when it is desired to secure a new combination of characters in the
PRACTICES OF BREEDING 27
development or establishment of new breeds or varieties. There is a belief that the mating of fowls of different breeds or varieties, and consequently those which are absolutely unrelated, tends to produce offspring which are unusually strong and vigorous, more so, in fact, than when crossing does not occur. There seems to be con- siderable foundation for such a belief. Crossing is there- fore sometimes resorted to for the purpose of increasing vigor or vitality.
It must be clearly understood by anyone who contem- plates crossing, that while the offspring directly resulting from the cross are often quite uniform in color, type and size, when these latter individuals are mated, their off- spring usually vary very widely in color, tvpe and size, and the variation may be all the wav from indi- viduals resembling one of the original parents of the cross in one or more particulars through many gradations and combinations to individuals resembling the other parent. Uniformity is very largely destroyed and can only be regained by the selection in successive gener- ations of individuals embodying the desired characters. This is a long, slow process, and for this reason the crossing of varieties or breeds should be left in the hands of the expert breeder who has some definite and good reason for making the cross. Occasionally a cross is re- sorted to by poultrymen where experience has shown that the offspring will possess some desired quality in high^ degree, such as meat qualify or good egg pro- duction, but where this is done it is necessary to" make the same cross whenever young stock is desired. This is inconvenient, as it requires that stock of the varieties crossed be kept pure in order to have the individuals for making the cross.
Grading up.— This is a process of improvement of mongrel stock by the use in successive generations of pure or standard-bred males of the same variety. In
28 THE MATING AND BREEDTNC ^^ POULTRY
each generation the females which most nearly resemble females of the variety of the male used should be se- lected and in turn bred back to another male of the same variety. Repeated practice of this sort leads to rapid improvement and in a few generations the stock can be brought to a point where for all practical purposes it is pure bred. In no case should males of different breeds or varieties be used in the different years, as such a step will destroy all the uniformity obtained and quickly de- grade the flock again into one of mongrels. Nor should the grade males be used for breeding until the uniformity of the flock has been well fixed.
As a result of the first use of the pure-bred male, the resulting offspring carry one-half pure blood. In suc- ceeding generations this becomes ^i, y%, ^'Xe* ^tc. It is easy to realize, therefore, why improvement is so rapid.
It must be clearly understood that grading up is not a practice which is recommended in preference to pur- chasing or keeping pure-bred stock. The latter course is by all means preferable. Grading up should only be practiced when it is impossible to make the necessary investment for pure-bred stock or where it is impossible to interest a poultrykeeper otherwise in the improvement of his stock. Grading up is most commonly practiced in improving farm flocks.
Introducing new blood. — in introducing new blood it is well not to use it indiscriminately on the flock until the breeder has determined how well it will blend or "nick" with the blood of his own birds. If a male is purchased he should be mated to three or four selected females and the quality of the offspring from this mating carefully observed. If the result is good, a male or males from this mating can be used on the flock. This will not only aft'ord an opportunity to test out the fitness of the new blood for use, but by using the oft'spring of the trial mating will cut down the percentage of new blood in-
PRACTICES OF BREEDING 29
troduced on the general flock, thereby lessening its dis- turbing influence, while at the same time securing in some measure such benefits as may accrue from the use of new blood. The purchased male after being thus tested for use on the breeder's flock, may, if the results of the trial mating seem to warrant, be used more widely the following season.
Many breeders prefer to purchase one or two females when introducing new blood. In this case they mate these females with a selected male from their own stock and if the result of this trial mating is good, they use the male offspring for the further introduction of the new blood.
Purchasing breeders. — In purchasing breeders it is by all means advisable to make a personal visit to the farm of the breeder from whom the purchase is to be made. This not only gives one a chance to pick out the par- ticular kind of bird which he needs for his purpose, but also enables one to form a good estimate of the general quality and vigor of the stock as a result of looking over the whole flock. Such an inspection of the whole flock, together with a talk with the breeder, may often enable one to gain a valuable idea of the breeding tendencies of this particular flock, so that he can more intelligently mate the purchased birds with his own fowls. Where a visit to the breeder's flock is not possible, it is necessary to depend upon the judgment and ability of the seller to select the bird or birds which will do the purchaser the most good. Where such an order is given by mail, it is well to explain not only the kind of bird desired, but also to describe briefly but clearly the purpose of the mating which is to be made, and to give a good description of the purchaser's stock and its breeding tendencies, as this will often materially aid the breeder supplying the bird to select the one which will give best results.
It is suggested that the beginner in buying a trio or
30
THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
pen from the breeder, purchase these already mated and request the breeder to explain why he puts those par- ticular birds together. It is also suggested that the breeder leg band and keep a record of any birds which he sells, and to whom sold, so that if he is called upon to furnish other birds to the same customer in the future he will be in better position to know just what birds to furnish for best results.
Often purchasers, particularly beginners, complain be- cause birds purchased by them show some defects or weaknesses. In this connection it must be borne in mind that no birds are perfect. Weaknesses or things to be guarded against Avill be found in all birds to some extent, and one must not expect that birds purchased
will be entirely free from them. In other words, one must not expect to re- ceive a perfect bird and should not feel de- frauded if some defects are shown. A bird which is not very bad in any one section, but which may show one or more slight defects which are not disqualifications, is a good bird and usually worth the money paid for it. Beginners also frequently complain that birds pur- chased by them show or develop a few ofif-colored
Fig. 10. Barred Plymouth Rock female showing black feathers in the plumage. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States De- partment of Agriculture.)
PRACTICES OF BREEDING
31
feathers and think that this indicates impurity of blood. Such is not the case, for off-colored feathers are not un- common in many varieties, as, for example, the black feathers in the Barred Plymouth Rock. Such off-colored feathers are not seen in the specimens exhibited at the shows, simply because they are pulled out, but their presence does not indicate impurity of blood. In chicks, also, before they get their mature plumage there may be foreign color of plumage shown, and this is often mis- taken for evidence of impurity. With the growth of the mature plumage, however, this foreign color is usually completely lost. An example of this is the white which commonly occurs in the wings of chicks of black va- rieties, but which usually disappears from the adult plumage.
Standard or single mating. — By this is meant the use of birds of both sexes which ap- proach as closely as possible the standard re- quirements for the variety in question. In some respects this is the sim- plest breeding to follow and is the method most commonly and most widely used, particularly in the case of solid colored birds. Where this method is employed it is the ex- pectation to secure birds cf both sexes which are of good
Fig. 11. The same Barred Plymouth Rock female shown in Fig. 10, after the black feathers have been removed. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.)
32 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
quality, or, in other words, which approach fairly closely to the standard. Many older and more experienced breeders are at present employing this method less and less exclusively, and are leaning toward the double mating system. In some cases, such as the solid colored birds, this double mating does not take the form of two matings which differ markedly in character, but rather in the development of two more or less distinct blood lines, one of which shows a greater tendency to produce males of good quality and the other to produce females of good quality.
Combination mating. — Frequently a special, or what may be termed a combination mating, is employed. In this mating one male is used with two dift'erent types of females, from one of which standard male oft'spring are more particularly expected, and from the other standard female oft'spring.
Double mating. — Double mating consists of the use of two distinct matings or sets of matings ; one for the purpose of producing a greater percentage of standard males, and the other for the purpose of producing a greater percentage of standard females. The first of l^hese matings is therefore known as the cockerel mating, and the females from it will usually prove unsuitable for exhibition, but are useful for continuing this line of breeding, and are known as cockerel-bred females. The second of these matings is known as the pullet mating, and the males produced from it will usually prove un- suitable for exhibition, but are useful for continuing this line of breeding, and are known as pullet-bred males. It will, therefore, be seen that the practice of double mating necessitates the carrying of two distinct lines of blood, the pullet line and the cockerel line. Often the matings are quite distinct in character, as in the case of the Barred Plymouth Rock, where each mating is made and designed to offset the natural tendency of the male and
PRACTICES OF BREEDING 33
female ofifspring to diverge in their color markings. However, as mentioned under Standard or Single mating, double mating sometimes resolves itself simply into the keeping of two distinct lines of blood which have proven especially suited, one for the production of males and one for the production of females.
A fixed plan of breeding. — For success in breeding it is necessary first of all to have a definite ideal in mind. In case this is some utility quality, such as increased egg production or improved table birds, the breeder must have clearly in mind just what he wishes to accomplish. In case it is the production of standard or show speci- mens, he must carefully study the description of his variety, as given in the Standard of Perfection, and be- come so familiar w^ith these requirements that he has the ideal clearly and definitely fixed in his mind. Having a definite ideal to breed to, he must then have a fixed plan of procedure, and as this is important, he must in its main features adhere to it. He will fail to make progress of a substantial character if he continuously changes his plan of breeding, and his success, instead of consisting in producing a good percentage of birds of quality, will be, if any, of a spasmodic and accidental kind that pro- duces only an occasional good individual. A measure of the success of the breeding is a comparison of the young stock wdth the parent stock. Unless the young stock shows on the whole an improvement over the parent stock, no progress is being made. If such a lack of improvement continues it is safe to assume that the plan of breeding is wrong, and a change of method should then be made.
Foreseeing bad tendencies. — The successful breeder must be foresighted. He must be quick to see any bad tendencies creeping into the flock and must take steps in his matings to correct them. The quicker he notes such tendencies, the easier will be his task of eradicating them.
34 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF TOULTRY
If he does not recog-nize the danger until it shows strongly in the flock, he will have a serious time eradi- cating it. This again emphasizes the necessity for the breeder to be continuously studying his flock in the most minute manner. He must in eft'ect be thinking and planning ahead of his actual matings. For example, a breeder of White Leghorns may notice a troublesome tendency toward white in face creeping into his flock. He must then immediately become more rigid in his se- lection against white in face and use no birds showing it if it can possibly be avoided. In any case, it will be a wise precaution for him to make a special mating of birds strong in face, so that he will have available a quantity of young stock, especially strong in this particular, from which he can select breeders to use in his future matings and so check this troublesome tendency.
Establishment of blood lines. — The breeder must aim to establish his own blood lines. To do so, he must con- centrate on the lines which show the most promise in his breeding. When blood lines are fairly well established he can rely much more certainly on the results to be ob- tained from the matings than if blood of different lines is continuously being introduced. Blood from some other line may utterly fail to blend or ''nick" well with his own lines and the result of such a mixing of blood lines may often have the same upsetting results, though within narrower limits, of course, that is obtained in crossing varieties or breeds. When it is desired to seek improvement by introducing new blood lines, this should be done in such a way as to upset the breeder's own lines as little as possible. Sec section on introducing new blood.
Offsetting the weak points of one sex with strength in the other sex. — This is a pretty generally recognized practice of breeding and is well founded. Having de- termined to use certain females or a certain male in the mating, the selection of the individuals of the opposite
PRACTICES OF BREEDING 35
sex should embody in so far as possible, strength in those sections where weakness is shown in their mates. Failure to do so may, and usually does, result in the intensifi- cation of the weakness, and may finally result in the presence of a weakness or defect which is common and firmly fixed throughout the flock. Where it is not pos- sible to make such a compensating selection in a mating, other matings should be made, which will be strong where the first mating is weak, so that the resulting oft- spring can be used in succeeding matings to correct or offset the weakness.
Grouping the birds for selection of the matings. — When selecting birds for a mating it will be found a material help if they can be brought together so that they can be easily and carefully compared. If a few exhibition coops are available the birds can be placed in these and the comparison easily made. The females or the males can then be brought side by side, studied and handled and a more intelligent selection made than if the birds are separated in different pens and the memory is relied upon to select those best suited for the purpose.
Breeding birds with defects. — The advisability of breeding birds with defects depends upon the seriousness of the defect and upon the freedom of the stock as a whole or its tendency toward the same defect. If the bird possessing the defect is an outstanding individual in other respects, it is often advisable to breed it. It is better to discard than to use it, however, if the flock shows a tendency toward this defect. In any case, when such a bird is used, the opposite sex of the mating should be selected with especial care to offset the defect. Many defects are due to accident or certain forms of deformity. Red spots in white ear lobes, crooked breast bones due to too early roosting, or the occasional crooked or roach back that is thrown by normal individuals need cause the breeder little or no concern.
36
THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
Breeding birds with disqualifications. — In general, it is unwise to breed birds showing disquaUfications. In the first place, a disqualification if reproduced renders the birds unfit either for sale or for exhibition, and in the second place, disqualifications are likely to be defects which are more or less common and troublesome to the breed or variety, and therefore quite likely to be reproduced. Some- times a disqualified bird of such extraordinary excellence,
except for the d isqualification, is obtained that it is desirable to breed it. The individual judg- m e n t of the breeder must decide whether this is wise, and. as in the case of birds showing defects, the ad- visability will depend largely upon the com- monness of the occurrence o f that particular d i squalification in his stock. Disqualifications such as stubs and side sprigs are common and strongly inherited in some breeds, while in others they are rare and less strongly in- herited. For example, it is dangerous to breed a Rhode Island Red showing stubs or side sprigs, less dangerous to breed a Barred Plymouth Rock under the same circum-
Fig. 12. Single comb showing side sprig. (Photo- graph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.)
PRACTICES OF BREEDING 37
stances, and still less dangerous to use such a Leghorn. In any case, only super excellence of a disqualified individual justifies its use as a breeder.
Defects likely to occur in common color matings. — In varieties of the same color but of different breeds there are certain well-defined defects which are more or less common to all of them and which must therefore be uniformly guarded against in the mating. The defects mentioned in connection with the common color matings given below are likely to appear in that colored variety of any breed, but may occur more commonly in some than in others. They are grouped under these headings for the information of anyone who is particularly interested in a general color mating.
White matings. — Black or dark ticking; creaminess in quill or undercolor; brassiness ; black or foreign color in the quills ; solid black in wings or tail ; black feathers in any section ; red, buff or salmon in the plumage ; gray plumage.
Black matings. — Gray in the hackle and saddle of males ; red, straw or silver in the hackle, back, wing bows or saddle of males ; white, gray or light undercolor in the hackle, back and saddle of males, especially in hackle ; white in sickles of males; bronze tinge on the shoulders and especially on the tails of males ; brownish or dull black surface color in females; white or gray in wings; purple barring; white or gray at root of tail; dull black surface color lacking the green sheen ; frosted or white tips to the wing feathers ; white in flights.
Buff matings. — White edging to the sickle feathers of males ; unevenness of color of the hackle, back, wing bows and saddle of males ; too heavy color on the shoulders and back of males ; too light or white undercolor at base of hackle, at base of tail or in the saddle of males ; wing bow darker than breast, especially in males ; tendency for the saddle and tail coverts to be laced with white ; shafting, mealiness and patchiness in females ; too light color in females ; white, black, a peppering of either or smokiness in
38 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
the wing flights or in the main tail feathers ; white in under- color; white or very light huff quills close to the body; feathers tending to be laced.
Columbian matings. — No lacing on the back at the base of the tail in males; brassy surface color in males; black ticking on the throat, breast and fluff of males ; purple bar- ring in the black of male's tail and hackle; brown cast to the primary wing feathers of males ; black or black ticking in the surface of the backs of females ; too heavy lacing in the tail coverts of females ; indistinct or smutty lacing in the hackle and tail coverts of females; white spots in the pri- maries of females ; black in the surface of the feathers at the sides of the fluff and of the body feathers just in front of the fluff ; too light or faded appearing markings ; the white lacing not extending clear around the ends of the hackle feathers ; too light or pure white under color ; main tail and sickle feathers not black clear to the skin ; gray in the wnngs.
Golden mating-; — Smutty wing bars and shoulders; frosting, especially on the breast ; mossiness both in pullets and in hens that have molted mossy; the lacing of the hackle not extending around the ends of the feathers ; purple barring in the black sections of the males ; too heavy lacing ; black peppering or mossiness in the ground color; black peppering in the wings ; light or white in the black of the flight and main tail feathers ; general color of the plumage too light; uneven lacing; lacing weak or lacking under the throat and on the head.
Silver matings. — Smutty wing bars and shoulders ; too narrow or too heavy lacing; frosting, especially on the breast; mossiness, both in pullets and in hens that have molted mossy ; the lacing of the hackle not extending around the ends of the feathers ; black peppering or mossiness in the ground color ; black peppering in the wings ; general color of the plumage too light ; uneven lacing ; lacing weak or lacking under the throat and on the head.
PRACTICES OF BREEDING 39
Partridge matings. — The black striping running through the ends of the hackle and saddle feathers of the males so that there is no red edging showing clear around the ends of the feathers ; white in the tail and wings, especially in males ; too light colored females with lemon hackles ; stippling in the tail coverts of females ; too dark a red in males ; lemon hackle in males ; yellow shafts to the hackle nnd saddle feathers of males ; purple and purple barring in the black sections of males ; white or light in the under color of the hackle, back and saddle of males ; metallic sheen in females; too dark penciling, that is, the black pencilings wider than the red of the feathers ; too fine or too narrow penciling; stippling, barring or broken penciling in the back and fluff; dark legs, particularly in females.
Silver Penciled matings. — Red on wings of males ; solid white in flight and main tail feathers of males, other than the white edging of the primaries and secondaries called for by the standard ; brassy backs of males ; inclination to brownish cast instead of gray in females, which is apt to increase with age ; gray in flight feathers ; brown on the shoulders of males ; purple barring in the black sections of males ; indistinct penciling in females ; poor penciling of the throat and breast of females ; poor penciling of the lower back and tail of females ; the hackle and saddle striping running clear through the ends of the feathers.
Mottled matings. — Birds too light in color ; too large white tips of the feathers ; indistinct white tips showing some black or gray ; too many white feathers in the wing bows, both of males and females ; red or brass in the hackle, back, wing bows and saddle of males ; too much white in the wing flights and secondaries and in the main tail feath- ers ; ashy color in the white tips ; purple barring ; white feathers in the bodies of females.
Use of tested breeders. — Often it happens that some indi- vidual, which may or may not be in itself an exceptional
40 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
individual, will prove to be unusually prepotent and conse- quently have an unusual value as a breeder. This can only be determined as the result of matings made, but when such an individual is found it should, of course, be used as long as it will breed to advantage. Sometimes a particular mating \vill be found to give unusually good results, and when this is the case the same mating should be kept together in successive years as long as possible.
|
'A |
A |
-A |
A |
|
- A |
A |
- A |
A |
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=■ A |
A |
- A |
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-A |
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^ A |
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«^ A |
A |
« A |
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* A |
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Fig. 13. The combination of marks possible to use in toe-punching
chicks. (From the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States
Department of Agriculture.)
Pedigreeing. — Young stock should be pedigreed. This means that a record be kept of their parentage so that it is possible to know the parents of any desirable individuals. Only by pedigree breeding can the breeder know what the different matings or the different individuals are producing, and consequently their breeding value. The most common form of pedigreeing is simply to keep a pen record. This is
I»RACTICES OF BREEDING 41
most commonly done by toe punching the chicks from each mating with a distinctive mark. Chick leg bands may be used for this purpose if desired, but toe punching is simple and answers the purpose very well. There is a tendency for some of the toe punches to grow up, and to make sure that this does not occur and thereby confuse the record the chicks should be gone over carefully when about two weeks old, and any holes which show a tendency to grow up punched out anew. This second punch, if necessary is almost certain to be permanent. See Fig. 13 The-e pen pedigrees tell the sire of the chicks, but do not indicate which hen they are out of.
Where pedigree records are desired which will give the parentage on both the male and female side, it is necessary to resort to a more complicated system of records, except where the matings are few and the individual hens of all the matings involved do not exceed 16 in number. For any number of hens up to 16 a different toe punch can be given the chicks from each hen.
S?'hatchS^^ ?Pv!nt™"K^ )'^"' ^.t''^^ ''" pedigree basket and bag ready
lor hatching. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry. United
btates Department of Agriculture.)
Trapnesting is the first requirement of complete pedigree- ing in order to be able to identify the eggs from each hen. These eggs should be marked, preferably on the large end, with the number of the hen, and if desired, with the pen number as well. Sometimes the system is used of writing
42
THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
the pen number, then drawing a Hne and beneath writing the
hen number, e. g.
9/
9 being the pen number and 36 the
hen number. If the eggs are to be incubated under hens, enough must be saved from an individual hen for a sitting, or eggs from two or more hens of different breeds may be used to make up a sitting. If they are to be hatched in in- cubators, eggs from the different hens are placed in the machine together. On the eighteenth day the eggs from each
hen are sorted out and placed in a pedigree bag or pedigree trays for hatching. Pedigree trays, consisting of wire-en- closed compartments to be set on the ordinary incubator trays, can be purchased. Suitable ped- igree bags can be made easily and cheaply of mosquito bar or bobbi- net of any size desired and consisting of one, two or four compart- ments. See Fig. 14. The eggs are placed in these bags, which are tied tightly shut so that the chicks cannot escape and become mixed. A fairly liberal allowance of room should be made in these bags, for if the eggs are crowded they will not hatch so w^ell and the chicks are more .likely to be crippled.
As soon as the hatch is complete the chicks are removed from the bags and each one banded with an open numbered
|
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!^hrf»?r- ^: f-x. |
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Fig. 15. Chick with duplicate pedicrree leg bands. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Depart- ment of Agriculture.)
PRACTICES OF BREEDING
43
chick band such as can be purchased of au)^ poultry supply house. A note is made of the band number and of the parentage of the chick bearing this band. The band must be pressed around the legs of the chick closely enough so that it will not slip off over the foot. See Fig.' 15. As the chick grows, the band must be opened from time to time to allow for the increased size of the leg. The growth of the leg will not force open the band, and failure to attend to the bands will cause the leg to grow around and beyond the band and may cause a bad sore or even the loss of the chick. When the chick is two to six weeks old the band should be re- moved from the leg and placed in the wing, where it can be worn until maturity. Fig. 16. A small knife blade should be run through the thin skin on the upper side of the wing which extends from the shoulder joint to the outer joint of the wing, and the band passed through this hole and pressed together. By holding the spread wing up to the light a spot can easily be selected about one-quarter inch from the outer edge of the skin where no blood vessels of any size are visible, and little or no bleeding will result. Fig. 17. The ends of the band should be brought together or lapped slightly and
Fig-. IG. Position of pedieree hand after it has been transferred from the lej? to the wing. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture.)
44 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
pressed close together, but the whole band should be left rounded and not to be pressed tightly together so as to pinch the skin, as this may cause irritation, swelling and pain, or may cause a sore which may lead to the band sloughing off and becoming lost. These bands stay on the legs and in the wings of the chicks remarkably well and only a small per- centage are lost. If desired, two bands bearing duplicate numbers can be used, one on each leg, and later transferred to each wing. This will reduce the numbers of chicks with lost pedigree records to a minimum. Pedigree breeding in-
Fig. 17. Place where pedigree band is inserted through the wing.
(Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States
Department of Agriculture.)
volves a considerable amount of extra work and detail record keeping. It is, however, the only means by which the breeder is able to determine with certainty which birds and matings are producing results and which are failures. For the breeder who is striving for improvement and who wants to know exactly what he is doing, whether in breeding for standard requirements, for utility, or for both, it is well worth while.
PRACTICES OF BREEDING
45
Record of matings. — A record of the matings made each ^•ear should be kept. Each pen or mating should be given a '.^uniber, and under this should be listed the females and the male used in the mating. The value of this record lies in the
fact that if a mating gives unusually good results, so that it is desired to repeat it the following year, this can be done without any uncertainty as to the individuals involved.
46 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
Description of matings. — A description of the matings and of the individuals used in the matings should be made and filed for reference. Such a description may prove very valuable, as it enables the breeder to refresh his memory as to the exact character and peculiarities of any individuals which have given good results even if they have died, and may then yield him valuable breeding knowledge which he would otherwise overlook. Such a description, when made of pullets and cockerels, will give the breeder a knowledge of the bird in pullet or cockerel condition, and may enable him to know in later years whether certain defects are due to age, and will guide him, therefore, as to whether it is wise or unwise to use them in any particular mating which he has in mind.
When chicks are pedigreed and a record kept of the matings, it is well to go over the young stock critically in the fall before the old stock is culled. By doing this, a good idea will be gained as to which of the breeding stock has given results in superior young stock and which have failed to do so. With this knowledge, the old stock of breeders can be much more intelligently culled.
Stud mating. — AMien it is desired to breed the females of a flock to two or more males, and where separate pens are not available for this purpose, stud mating is sometimes resorted to. Stud mating refers to the practice of keeping the males used in separate quarters or coops and bringing to them the females with which they are to be mated as they lay. Consequently trapnesting is a necessary part of stud mating. If a hen is mated after each second egg she lays, the fertility will be equally as good and may be better than if the male ran with the flock. See Fig. 18. In fact, a mating after every third egg laid seems to give satisfactory results. The hen need be left with the male only long enough for copulation to take place, but since it is usually not expedient to wait around and assure one's self that this has occurred, leaving the hen with the male for a half hour
PRACTICES OF BREEDING 47
IS adequate. Stud mating requires more work than ordinary mating. Its advantage lies in the ability to mate the different females of a flock with different males, while allowing the hens to remain together and be cared for as a single flock. It also insures better fertility where it is desired to breed only a few females from a large flock than would be obtained if a single male Avere allowed to run with the hens. Where a flock is too large to be taken care of by a single male, and where two males cannot be used at one time or alternated because definite pedigrees are desired of the chicks, it is also useful.
Alternating males. — With flocks too large to give good fertility with a single male, two or more males are often used. They can be allowed to run with the flock at one time, but in this case there is a tendency for the strongest male to dominate the others and to do most if not all the breed- ing. Better results are obtained where the different males used are alternated. This is accomplished by allowing one of the males to run with the flock in the morning and the other in the afternoon, or else upon successive days. Many poultrymen use this system even with smaller flocks, believ- ing that they get better results in fertility by this practice. The disadvantage of such a system is that it is obviously impossible to determine which male is the sire of any of the offspring.
Age of breeders. — Only fully matured birds should be used as breeders. Yearlings or older hens . make better breeders than pullets because they lay larger eggs and also because they have -had a period of rest ducingthe molt pre- ceding the breeding season, while the pullets, if they have been laying all the fall and winter, are more or less ex- hausted and consequently in less satisfactory breeding condition.
Well-matured cockerels, because more active, give better fertility than older males. To secure best results in breed- ing it is well to use cockerels with hens and comparatively
48 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
young, vigorous cocks with pullets. Sometimes a young, un- developed cockerel is of such excellence that it is desirable to breed him. By placing such a cockerel with a couple of hens for some time before eggs are to be saved, he will be developed faster than if kept away from females. The number of females mated to an undeveloped cockerel should be small, never exceeding three or four. Where cockerels are run together and separated from the females, it is usu- ally desirable to pick out the most promising and to separate them from the others, either by placing with hens or by re- turning them to the pullet range so as to give them a good chance to develop to the best advantage.
Size of mating. — The size of mating will depend upon the breed, the conditions under which the birds are kept and the condition and vigor of the birds themselves. One male of one of the lighter breeds, such as the Leghorn, will usu- ally give good results with about 15 females; a male of the
Fig. 19. A good range means well-grown young stock. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.)
general purpose breeds, such as the Plymouth Rock, with 10 to 12 females,- and a male of the heaviest breeds, such as the Brahma, with 8 to 10 females. Where the male is especially strong, vigorous and active; and where the fowls
PRACTICES OF BREEDING 49
are given free range, the number can often be materially increased with success. A Plymouth Rock male on a flock of 20 females and a Leghorn on a flock of 30 to 40 females on free range have frequently given splendid fertility.
Breeding condition. — Fowls to be in good breeding con- dition should be well fed and be in good flesh, but not ex- cessively fat. Thinness or overfatness are both detrimental alike to egg production and to fertility.
Early hatching. — This is an important element in the successful rearing of young stock of good quality. Not only do the chicks hatched early live and grow better, but early hatching is essential if young stock of the desired size and finish are desired for the fall and early winter shows. The hatching should be done in February, j\Iarch and April and should be completed by the first or at latest the middle of May. Early hatching also has a most beneficial effect upon the egg production, for it is only the early hatched pullets which mature in the fall in time to start laying before the cold weather sets in. and are in consequence the profitable winter layers.
For the late winter shows, later hatching is an advantage in order to have the young stock at the very height of condi- tion at that time. It is also true that late hatched birds may sometimes appear to be better colored, due to the fact that their mature plumage was acquired later and has not been subjected to much intense sunshine, which may cause fading.
Free range vs. confinement. — There is absolutely no question as to whether or not free range is preferable for breeding stock. Not only will the fowls so allowed to range be in better health and condition, but the eggs will show better fertility and will be larger and capable of hatching stronger chicks. If it is not possible to give a breeding flock free range, they should be given as roomy a run as possible and should be regularly and plentifully supplied with green feed, such as kale, cabbage, beets, clover, alfalfa or sprouted oats.
50
THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
PRACTICES OF BREEDING 51
Good management. — Good management and good breed- ing are so closely dependent that without both the best re- sults are impossible of attainment. The young stock must be carefully and plentifully fed, well grown and kept free from lice and mites. If this is not done, birds of the desired size and of the desired finish and condition will not be obtained. Insufficient feeding and poor or irregular growth are frequently responsible for certain defects, not only of feather growth, but also of color.
Culling. — The young stock must be severely and cour- ageously culled. A successful culler and a successful
Fig. 21. A supply of dry mash where the young stock can help them- selves promotes rapid, even grrowth. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.;
breeder are almost synonymous terms. The breeder must recognize what he wants in his young stock and must have the courage of his convictions to cull out those birds which do not meet his. requirements, and which, while admirable in some respects, have serious defects or disqualifications which are bound to prove troublesome if the bird is retained and bred. Continuous culling throughout the season will gradually eliminate the young stock of poorer quality and will make room and give the better specimens a better chance to grow and develop.
The experienced poultryman will also cull his entire flock the year round. Whenever he sees a bird which is going to
52
THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
pieces or which is badly out of condition or sick, he will cull it, and thereby not only get rid of unprofitable birds, but reduce to a minimum the chance for disease to spread through the flock. In addition, most breeders cull out those birds which they no longer wish to carry as breeders after they have stopped laying in the summer or fall.
Trimming heavy feathered fowls. — Where fowls are extremely heavily feathered, like the Cochins and some Wyandottes, the profusion of feathers about the vent and tail frequently interferes with successful copulation, with
the result that the fertility of the eggs is poor. To remedy this condition, cut or trim the feath- ers away about the vent and also a little off the main tail feathers of both sexes just before the breeding season. Often this- will ■ result in much better fertility.
Combination of utility and q u a li t y. — A great amount of discussion has arisen over the question of utility vs. standard bred poultry. There seems to exist a fairly wide opinion that if a breeder is working for utility he cannot have birds of good quality, while if he is working for quality his birds must of necessity be poor utility fowls. There is no good foundation for such an opinion. Many hens
Fig. 22. Single Comb White Leghorn cockerel out of hen 408, who is shown with her record in Fig. 24. The sire of the .cockerel was also out qf .a hen . which laid 202 eggs in her pullet year. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States De- partment of Agriculture.)
PRACTICES OF r.REEDIXG 53
of excellent quality have been decidedly superior egg pro- ducers, while the standard shape requirements for the differ- ent breeds insure good table type. Admittedly it is harder to secure fowls showing a combination of excellent quality and excellent producing ability than to secure either one alone, just as it is always harder to select successfully for two char- acters than for one, but that such a combination does fre- quently exist and can be obtained there can be no doubt. It is being done by breeders and the authors themselves have succeeded in securing this result in their breeding work at the Government Poultry Farm, Beltsville, Maryland. It is equally true that for the breeder who can secure such a combination of show quality and high egg production there is a broader field than for breeders who specialize on one Ime alone, and just so surely as it requires greater pains and superior ability to secure this result, just so surely will the demand for his stock and his financial reward be greater.
CHAPTER III
BREEDING FOR INCREASED EGG PRODUCTION
Importance of vigor and health. — Egg production, and in particular heavy egg production, is a severe strain upon a hen or pullet. Any individual, therefore, which is lacking in health, strength or vigor is unable to stand up under this strain and is in consequence unable or extremely unlikely to make big records. For this reason it Is especially important that the breeding stock be very strong, healthy and vigorous if their offspring are to show these same qualities and be so constituted that they can bear the strain of heavy Qgg pro- duction, provided they have the inherent ability. Therefore, in selecting breeding stock with the idea of improving the average egg production of a flock, it is of primarv impor- tance to be sure that the breeding stock shows strong consti- tutional vigor and that they are in the best of health. Strength, constitutional vigor and health are usually indi- cated by certain characteristics of fowls. Fowls having these charcteristics should be active, alert and spirited ; the males in particular should have a fearless appearance, the eye should be bright and fairly prominent and the birds should stand strongly on their legs. They should have bone of good size and strength for their breed and should show by the bright red color of head parts and by the smooth, well-kept condition of their plumage that they are in the best of health. Avoid birds which are listless and inactive, are weak on their legs, have dull eyes, long or snaky heads and sunken eyes.
In breeding for improvement in egg production it fre- quently happens that in order to get ancestry on both sides which has high production back of it, the fowls are rather closely inbred. While it may at times be necessary or desir-
54
BREEDING FOR INCREASED EGG TRODUCTION
55
able to make such inbred matlngs, it is best not to continue this practice too long without introduction of blood less closely related. It seem to be fairly well established that the crossing of two breeds or varieties tends to result in improving the vigor of the ofifspring, and this same result is usually apparent also when fowls of the same breed or variety, but of distinct and unrelated strains, are mated together.
Prof essor James Dry den of the Oregon experiment sta- tion, in his work in breeding for increased Ggg production, has found that the increased vigor obtained by us- ing unrelated blood adds very materially to the result in G^gg production sim- ply from this cause alone. In his work, how- ever, he has not been contented to stop with the improvement so obtained, but has followed up this increased vigor by careful selection of individuals according to their performance and breeding qualities, and has been able to improve egg production to a considerably greater degree than resulted from the increased
Fig'. 23. Single Comb White Leghorn cockerel out of hen 2033. This hen laid 230 eggs from November i to November 1 of her pullet year, and 260 eggs be- fore she stopped laying. Eight of her sisters and half-sisters produced as follows in their pullet year: 180, 187, 195, 196, 198, 208, 235 and 240 eggs. The fire of this cockerel is a son of hen 514, which laid 213 eggs in her pullet year and 536 eggs in three years. The grandsire on the sire's side is a son of hen 408, who is showTi with her record in Fig. 24. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.)
56 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
vigor alone. While in some of his work he has crossed breeds with good results so far as the egg production of the offspring is concerned, he also states that it is unnecessary to cross breeds, as he can secure the same results by crossing unrelated strains within a breed or variety and by the proper selection of individuals in succeeding matings.
How high egg producing ability is inherited. — There has been a considerable difference of opinion as to how high egg production is inherited. It was the commonly held belief that this quality of high production might be inherited either from the male or female parent, or from both. Later, however, Dr. Pearl, as the result of his work at the Maine experiment station, concluded that one of the factors which are responsible for high egg production is inherited from generation to generation in accordance with Mendel's law, and he further concluded that this particular factor was sex limited, or, in other words, that it could not be inherited directly by pullets from their dams, but could be inherited by them from their sire only, who in turn might get it either from his dam or his sire. Other investigators working along the same lines do not agree with Dr. Pearl's conclusions, feeling that their results show that to some extent, at any rate, high egg production can be inherited directly from the dam as well as from the sire. It must be remembered also that even if Dr. Pearl's conclusions are correct, and if it is necessary for pullets to inherit the ability to be high pro- ducers from their sire and not directly from their dam. it does not follow that the egg producing ability of hens should be disregarded in breeding, since cockerels may inherit this quality from their dams as well as their sires, and it is only the cockerels which inherit this quality from both sides that are of the highest prepotency in transmitting it in turn to their daughters.
In general, the problem of breeding for improved egg production is a very complex and difficult one, but it may be reduced in its simplest terms to the proposition of breeding
BREEDING FOR INCREASED EGG PRODUCTION 57
from the higher producers in the flock and discarding as breeders the lower producers. It does not appear, in the opinion of those who have had experience along this line, to be necessarily good policy to breed from the very highest producers or most outstanding individuals in this particular, but rather to breed from individuals whose production is high but does not run to the extreme. It is recognized to be more or less of a general truth that individuals which are well above the average in any particular quality, but are not the outstanding extremes, are more likely to transmit their good qualities to their offspring than are the extreme individuals.
In attacking the problem of what may be done in the way of breeding for improved egg production, it is necessary to consider the various conditions under which poultry are kept and to consider from this what may be the practical steps to take under existing conditions.
Breeding from an untrapped flock. — Flocks of poultry kept for Qgg production are in the main cared for without any detailed records being kept. Usually there will be no records available of the Ggg production of the different pens and in many cases even of the flocks as a whole. Under these conditions, of course, the hens are not trapnested and no information is available as to the individual breeding of any of the birds, either males or females. All that can be done, therefore, is to select from the general flock as intelli- gently as possible the best individuals to be used as breeders.
First of all, in this case the birds must be selected which show every evidence of being strong and healthy and which are possessed of good constitutional vigor so far as this can be determined from external indications. It is also neces- sary that the birds have a shape of body that is of sufficient length, breadth and depth so that there is plenty of room for a good development, both of the digestive organs and the egg producing organs, or, in other words, that have good capacity. Fortimately also, there are certain external char-
58
THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
acters which form fairly reliable guides in picking out the better producers from a flock. The best time of the year to make such a selection is in the late summer or during the fall, October or November usually being most satisfactory. It will be found that birds which at this time of the year are still laying are the birds which in the main have been the better producers of the flock for the entire year. This applies most satisfactorily to hens at t-he end of their first or pullet laying year.
Selecting good layers from the untrapped flock. — Indi- cations of good laying ability or of a good yearly egg pro-
d u c t i o n are those things which show that a hen is still lay- ing at this time of year : First is the f a i 1 ure to molt until late in the fall. Hens or pullets which do not molt until that time are, other things being equal, still producing eggs, and will usttally prove to have been the best producers throughout the entire year. The condition of the molt is one of the outstanding characteristics in determining egg producing ability. With pullets it may be said in the vast majority of cases that those which molt before the first
Fig. 24. Single Comb White Leghorn hen No. 408. This hen laid 214 eggs in her pullet year and 654 eggs in 4 years. (Photograph from the Bureau of
Animal Industry,
United States Agriculture.)
Department of
BREEDING FOR INCREASED EGG PRODUCTION 59
of August are the poorest layers and should be culled from the flock. Those which begin their molt between the first of August and September 1 should likewise be culled, but are ordinarily not as poor layers as those molting before this period. Pullets which begin to molt during the month of September, other things being equal, should be retained as fairly good layers, while those which do not molt until after October 1 may be considered as the best producers in the flock.
While this distinction is not nearly as clear with hens, at the same time it applies in a general way, except that hens usually molt earlier than pullets. Comparatively few hens molt as late in the fall as do the best laying pullets.
The second is the condition of the comb. When a hen is laying or about to lay. her comb is large, full of blood and bright red in color. When not laying, the comb is small and shrunken, pale or dull in color, comparatively hard and covered with whitish scales. A dark or bluish color usually indicates sickness. Changes in the wattles and ear lobes are similar to those of the comb, but not so marked.
The third is the spread of the pelvic bones. As a hen stops laying, the pelvic bones, that is, the two bones which can be felt as points on either side of the vent, approach closer together than they are when she is in full lay. In all probability if the spread of these two pelvic bones is two fingers or less she is not laying, while if the spread is greater than this she is probably laying. Of course, in measuring this spread, the relative size of the hens of different breeds with the corresponding natural difference in the spread must be kept in mind.
The fourth is the distance from pelvic bones to keel. As the hen stops laying there is also a decided tendency for the distance from the pelvic bones to the rear end of the keel to decrease, due to the fact that both egg organs and intestines are smaller and require less room. A spread between these two points which measures three or more fingers in the
60 THE MATIXG AXD BREEDING OF TOULTRY
smaller breeds and four or more fingers in the larger breeds usually indicates that the hen is in a laying condition, while a spread of less than this indicates that she is not in a laying condition.
The fifth is the flexibility of abdomen. When the hen is laying, the greater size of the abdomen, which is associated with a greater spread from pelvic bones to keel, and the lessened tendency to accumulate fat in the abdomen results in a softer and more flexbile abdomen than is the case with a hen which is not in a laying condition. The abdomen of a laying hen suggests when handled the texture of a partly milked out udder of a cow, while that of the hen which has ceased laying feels harder, more compact and less flexible.
The sixth is the appearance of the vent. The vent of a hen which is laying heavily is large, expanded and moist, while that of a hen not laying is comparatively small, hard, puckered and dry.
Seventh, shank and skin color. In breeds which have yellow skin and yellow legs there is a decided tendency for this color to be lost or to fade out as the hen lays. The rapidity and degree to which the yellow color is lost depends to a considerable extent upon the heaviness of laying. However, hens which show strong or medium yellow shank color in the fall are almost certainly poor layers, while those which show a bleached or white color of leg may be good layers, athough not necessarily so. Hens which are kept on grass range do not lose the shank color as quickly or com- pletely as those kept in yards, while some soils tend to bleach the color of the legs and may cause even poor layers to have white legs. ^Moreover, a sick hen, or one in poor con- dition, may show pale shanks.
As is the case with the shanks, so the beak loses its yellow color as the laying progresses. The beak color, however, is lost more quickly than the shank color and is also regained more quickly after the molt. The .shank color is therefore a better indication of egg production over a long period. In
BREEDING FOR INCREASED EGG PRODUCTION Di
the case of yellow skinned breeds, the skin immediately around the vent loses its yellow color very ctuickly with lay- ing and regains it quickly after laying ceases. A white or pink vent color, therefore, generally indicates that the hen is laying, while a yellow vent color indicates that the bird is not laying. In forming an opinion in the fall as to whether or not a hen is laying, and consequently in judging whether or not she has been a good layer for the entire year, it is best not to depend upon any one of these indications alone, but to consider all of them to see whether a majority does not agree in indicating laying condition and good pro- duction. It is necessary also to guard against the selection of occasional hens which may be laying at the time but have not laid heavily. The condition of the plumage will indi- cate a hen which has molted and resumed laying, while the shank color will usually serve to detect a poor layer. By selection on this basis not all good producers will be in- cluded, nor will all medium producers be thrown out, but those selected will nearly all be good producers and prac- tically no poor producers will be included.
\Miere no records are kept, therefore, of individual per- formance or even of flock performance, it is possible by means of the principles indicated above to select from the flock the strongest, healthiest and most vigorous females with a body so shaped as to give them plenty of room for the vital processes necessary to heavy egg production, which are within reasonable limits of certainty the best layers in the entire flock. These females should be separated from the rest of the flock and mated to a good, strong, vigorous male, out of a hen, if possible, which is known to be a good producer. The continued process of the careful selection of breeders along these lines, together with the use of males from the selected flock, will result in breeding from the higher producers in the flock, and should give an improve- ment in the egg production.
Testing the offspring. — Where more than one pen of
62 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
breeders is used, it is very desirable to toe punch or other- wise mark the chicks from the different matings so that it will be possible to identify the mating from which they came. As the pullets from these various matings are put in the laying pens in the fall it is well to separate them so that the pullets from the different matings are placed by them- selves. By the simple process of keeping a record of the egg production of the pens it is then possible to tell which of the matings is giving best results so far as the egg produc- tion of the pullets from them is concerned. Needless to say, if it is discovered that the results from any particular mating are outstandingly better than those from any other mating, this same mating should be put together the following year and for as many years as the birds are in vigorous breeding condition and the greatest possible number of chicks pro- duced from them. Such other breeding stock as it is neces- sary to use should also be from the original pen or pens from which exceptionally good results were obtained.
Breeding from pen pedigreed flocks. — Where the fowls are kept in separate pens so that different pen records of e^g production are available, the females for the matings in breeding for improved egg production should be selected on the same basis as stated above, since there is no surer way of determining which are the highest producers, as indi- vidual records as the result of the use of trapnests are not available.
Where pen records are kept, and particularly where the breeding pens are small enough so that only a single male is mated to the hens in the pen, it becomes possible by toe marking or otherwise to identify the chicks in so far as the identity of their sire is concerned. This makes it possible to secure a good line on the breeding ability of the different males used in the breeding pens by proceeding as indicated above, and to pen the offspring from the different pens separately and to keep a pen record of the different lots so as to test the breeding value of the sires.
BREEDING FOR INCREASED EGG PRODUCTION
63
Needless to say, any male which may be discovered to be a particularly prepotent individual with respect to the char- acteristic of high egg production should be preserved and mated as long as he is in good breeding condition and his blood should be spread through the flock as widely as pos- sible. This makes it necessary to hold the males used in breeding until their daughters have been tested for egg laying ability.
Breeding from trapnested stock. — Where fowls are trap- nested, it is pos- sible to engage in a much more elaborate series of breeding operations, with the idea in view o f improving the egg produc- tion. It must be stated, however, that trapnesting is a rather la- borious process and will usually be found to be too expensive for the average person to attempt to follow. At the same time it must be recognized that the interest in breeding for improved egg production is keen at the present time, and that the demand for stock from high producing lines is good and will probably be better in the future. It is likely, therefore, that it will pay many producers to go to the extra labor and expense of trap
Fig. 25, White Plymouth Rock hen 710. This hen •w-as not trapped until Januai-y 26 of her pullet year. From this time on she laid 176 eggs, 84 eggs being laid in 92 consecutive days and 109 in 122 consecutive days. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal In- dustry, United States Department of Agriculture.)
64
THE MATING AND BREEDING OF TOULTRY
ping their birds in order to be able to supply this demand for breeding stock out of known high producing individuals. Since there is no practical means which have yet been devised of certifying to or absolutely authenticating the records obtained by breeders in their own yards, it is a fore- gone conclusion that the integrity and reputation of a breeder must be of the best if he is to succeed in this busi- ness of producing high record breeding stock for sale. It is also possible, as will be explained later, for the breeder to trapnest to some extent and to be able to supply for his own needs, at any rate, birds from known high producers for his breeding operations.
Fig. 26. Trap rest in use. (Photoprraph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.)
Where the fowls are trapnested, it is necessary, if the breeding is to be carried on v;ith individuals whose ancestry is definitely known on both sides, that the chicks should be pedigreed. For directions as to pedigreeing see page 40. The pedigree hatching and rearing of the chicks makes it possible, therefore, to have on hand a number of fowls which can be used in the future breeding operations with absolute certainty as to the performance of their ancestors with respect to egg production, both on the male and female sides.
BREEDING FOR INCREASED EGG PRODUCTION 65
The detail of the matings which should be made is a matter which must depend very largely upon the judgment of the breeder himself. He must, however, keep in mind that all of the birds bred must be strong and healthy and must possess in so far as he can determine vigor to an unusual degree. The breeder must never allow mere high egg production in the ancestry to overbalance his good judg- ment and allow him to succumb to the temptation of using a bird of relatively low vitality and vigor.
The usual method of mating has for its purpose the com- bining in the pedigree of the offspring blood of high pro- ducing strains, both on the male and female sides. Again, however, it is necessary to call attention to the fact that too close and too long continued inbreeding must be avoided. \Miile it does not necessarilv follow that the sons of hiHi producing hens will prove to be breeders whose daughters will all be good producers, it is certainly true that the daughters of males whose mothers were high producers have a much better chance of becoming in turn high pro- ducers than do those out of a male whose mother was a poor producer. As the pullets from the different matings mature and are put in the pens and trapnestcd, it becomes possible to check up their performance and to determine what indi- viduals, either male or female, have been prepotent breeders with respect to the egg production of their daughters. Needless to say, if any indiviudals are discovered which show marked prepotency in this respect, they should be re- tained in the flock and bred just so long as they are useful. It is also, of course, common sense to use the sons of such prepotent individuals in other matings so as to test out their prepotency in turn. If prepotent individuals are discovered of each sex, it is by all means desirable to mate these to- gether, keeping in mind all the time that too close and long continued inbreeding had best be avoided.
Dr. Raymond Pearl, as a result of his experimental work at the Maine experiment station, outlines the following plan
66 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
for the practical breeder who is trapnesting his birds to follow in breeding for increased egg production :'^
1. ''Selection of all breeding birds first on the basis of constitutional vigor and vitality."
2. "The use as breeders of such females only as have shown themselves by trapnest records to be high producers."
3. "The use as breeders of such males only as are known to be the sons of high producing dams."
4. "The use of a pedigree system whereby it will be pos- sible at least to tell what individual male bird was the sire of any particular female. This amounts to a pen pedigree system which can be operated by the use of a toe punch."
5. "The making at first of as many different matings as possible. This means the use of as many different male birds as possible, which will further imply small matings with only comparatively few females to a single male."
6. "Continued, though not too narrow, inbreeding or line breeding of those lines in which the trapnest records show a preponderant number of daughters to be high producers. One should not discard all but the single best line, but should keep a half dozen at least of the lines which throw the high- est proportions of high lavers, breeding each line within itself."
Because trapnesting, if done for a large flock, is not only a laborious, but an expensive process, relatively few breed- ers find it practical for them to attempt to trapnest all their birds. It is, however, possible to combine the system of breeding so that they will have the advantages of some trap- nested stock, and will be able to check the results in the offspring by keeping pen records. For example, it is pos- sible to trapnest two or three pens of pullets, and when high producing individuals are discovered among these birds they can be used for breeding, the chicks from them can be pedigreed, the young males in turn being used on other breeding pens, and the pullets placed in the trapnest pens for *Maine Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin No. 231
BREEDING FOR INCREASED EGG PRODUCTION
67
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68 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
testing. Then, by housing or penning together the pullets from these different males, which are used on non-trap- nested stock, a pen record of egg production can be kept and these males tested with respect to their prepotency. In this way breeding stock is secured from high producing lines without going to the expense of trapping the whole flock or keeping individual pedigree records of all the chicks hatched and cockerels from high producing lines are available for use on the general or non-trapnested pens.
Period of trapping. — ^Vhere the sale of stock from record hens is contemplated, it will be necessary to trap for the entire year, as the demand is for records on a yearly basis. Usually the pullet year record is the highest year's record and unless it is desired to work for a reputation for long distance layers, that is,, hens which keep up their good pro- duction for several years, it is unnecessary to trap beyond the end of the pullet laying year. However, it is usually good policy to continue to trap all hens which produce 200 eggs or better in their pullet year, for a long distance record is a good Sf^ling point. In order to cut down the number of pullets which are being trapped, it is usually possible by March 1 or before to eliminate a large proportion which obviously have no chance to make a good record. Dr. Pearl in his work considered any pullet which laid 30 eggs or more from November 1 to March 1 to be a good winter layer and a profitable and likely bird to keep. In general, it may be said that a pullet which lays 50 to 60 eggs from No- vember 1 to Alarch 1 has a good chance to make a record of 200 eggs or better.
CHAPTER IV
THE AMERICAN CLASS
The Plymouth Rock
The Plymouth Rock is a good sized, upstanding fowl, with body of good length, good breadth and depth. There is a considerable tendency for individuals of both sexes to be too small, and this can only be corrected by selecting fowls of standard weight as breeders. Birds should not, on the other hand, be used which are more than one or two pounds over weight, as such unusually large birds alniost invariably get away from good Plymouth Rock type.
The Plymouth Rock should not be stilty, that is, too long in shank. The bird wants to stand strongly on legs set well apart. There should be no tendency to a knock-kneed condition, but this is by no means rare and is quite troublesome. See Fig 28. The breast should be full and well rounded, not flat. IMales are particularly likely to be lacking in breast. See Fig. 29.
A long keel is desired and the body should have good width. Birds with narrow bodies should be avoided as
Fig. 28. A knock-kneed male.
r Photograph from the Bureau of
Animal Industry. United States
Department of Agriculture.)
69
70
THE MATING AND EREEDIXG OF POULTRY
breeders, since they are not typical Plymouth Rocks. A body set too low on legs, too deep from back to hock, or, in other words, body approaching too closely the Orpington in type, or with a tendency to be baggy, should be avoided.
The comb of the male should be fairly small, with a well- turned blade and five points. The comb of the male follows the curve of the head in general outline, but the blade should not follow the neck too closely. While five points are de- sired, four points, because of the relatively small size of the comb, are not bad, as they tend to form a s y m m e t r ical comb. In some cases, a six-point comb may prove to be symmetrical also. It is better to use a male with a four- point comb than one with six points, especially when the females to which he is to be bred carry combs with an extra number of points. The comb should be thick at the base and be strongly erect. It should not extend too far forward over the upper mandible or bill.
Fig. 29. A stilty Barred Plymouth Rock male with flat breast. ( Photoerrapn from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.)
THE AMERICAN CLASS 71
The comb of the female should be small and erect, like the male comb, but smaller. A comb in which the top of the points form a nearly straight line, or is a little rounded, is cc-nsidered good in shape. The combs of Plymouth Rocks run quite good and are not generally considered very trouble- some. The following are some of the more common faults : too large, too many points, side sprigs, double points and thumb marks, wrinkles or corrugations.
In the shape of head, the important thing is to see that the head is broad, thick and of good length, but not extremely long and snaky or crow-headed. See Fig. 8. The broad, deep, full skull is generally considered to denote stamina, and crow-headedness a lack of it.
The eye in each variety should be full of life and fire. Light or green eyes must be avoided.
The ear lobe should, of course, be red in both sexes. The trouble which may occur here is the appearance of white. Distinction must be made between positive white and the paleness, which may be due to lack of condition. If possible to avoid it, do not breed from an individual showing positive white, but the white which borders on paleness is not so serious. It must be remembered also that white or paleness sometimes develops with age. This, of course, is not as serious as where it occurs in young birds, and in consequence knowledge as to the color of the ear lobe of a bird while it was still a cockerel or pullet is valuable when mating.
The neck of both sexes should be well arched. In the male it is long and full, with abundant hackle, while in the female it is of medium length.
The back is one of the most important sections of this breed. In order to be a good typical Plymouth Rock, the back must be nearly flat at the shoulders, long and broad throughout. As nearly as possible, the same breadth which is present at the shoulders should be carried the entire length of back clear to the base of the tail. There should be no tendency to narrow up at the tail.
72
THE MATING AND BREEDING CF TOULTKY
The tail is also important, especially so because of its influence upon the shape of the back. The tail in both sexes is carried moderately low. There should be no angle be- tween the back and tail, but these sections should be joined by a good sweeping curve, the back and tail blending in together. It is of vital importance that the tail be well spread. By this is meant that the tail shall have good breadth
when V i e w e d from above, and shall be arched. If the tail lacks this spread and breadth, the effect will be that of the back narrowing up at the base of the tail. If the tail has a good spread, how- ever, then it can carry out with- out b r e a k the breadth and lines of the back. Some- times the tail of the male, espe- cially if very w i d e, will be split or divided, but this is un- desirable. Split tails in males are more or less common and undesirable in all breeds having widespread tails.
The wings should be carried properly folded and held strongly up in place. In a properly folded and held wing,
Fig. 30. White Plymouth Rock male showing split tail. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal In- dustry, United States Department of Agriculture.)
THE AMERICAN CLASS
73
the point of the wing points to, and is in line with, the vent. Frequently the point of wing is held up too high toward the saddle. Quite often the wing in this breed is not held up properly, but hangs down partly unfolded. Such a wing is called a slipped or split wing. See Fig. 8. Slipped wings are especially prevalent in the white variety. Breeders should be selected which are free from this defect if pos- sible, for it seems to breed strongly and is difficult to get out of a flock, once it has been introduced.
Sometimes the flight feathers do not grow normally, but show a twisted condition. See Fig. 31. Twisted wings are espe- cially prevalent in Barred Plym- outh Rocks. This is quite a serious defect. Con stitutional weakness is apt to be associated with twisted wings. Birds with twisted w i n g s usually have long wings poorly fleshed. A well-fleshed wing seldom shows twisted feathers.
A good yellow leg color is desired in all varieties, but is more or less difficult to obtain in some varieties, particularly in the females. Green peppering is likely to show in the White Plymouth Rock, a dark cast in the females of the
Fig. 31. Barred Plymouth Rock male showing twisted wing. ( Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.)
74 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
Partridge variety, dark spots or a green shade in the females of the Barred variety, and a green shade in the exhibition Barred Plymouth Rock male. Often Barred Plymouth Rock pullets which show dark shading on the shanks molt in with a fine yellow color of shanks as hens. While it is more or less difficult to secure clear yellow legs in the cases men- tioned above, it is possible to do so. This particular will undoubtedly be improved vastly, so that it will pay breeders to do what they can toward this end.
Barred Plymouth Rock females often show a dark shading m beak. While this is not considered a serious defect, a clear yellow is preferred.
The Plymouth Rock should have large, heavy, well- muscled thighs and shanks of good length. Too long shanks must, however, be avoided, as they are apt to go with flat breast. Too long shanks, knock-knees and long or crooked toes are often found in birds of weak constitution. The toes are sometimes crooked on one or both feet. This, of course, detracts from the appearance of the bird and conse- quently injures its show quality considerably. Stubs, small feathers or down sometimes occur, but the breed runs pretty good in this respect. In mating Plymouth Rocks the fol- lowing are defects more or less common to the breed which must be guarded against so far as possible :
Too large comb ; too many points to comb ; side sprigs ; double points to comb ; thumb marks ; too small size ; too stilty or too long-legged ; too deep, low set bodies approach- ing the Orpington in type ; flat or deficient breast ; knock- knees ; narrow bodies ; crooked toes ; tail too high ; split tail ; tail not well spread ; slipped or split wings ; twisted wings ; dark spots, dark or green shade or green peppering in shanks, particularly of females ; stubs ; light or green eye ; white in ear lobe ; crow or snaky head ; back tending to narrow in at base of tail, thus not carrying the width of back at shoulders throughout the length of back; angle where back and tail join.
THE AMERICAN CLASS 75
The Barred Plymouth Rock
This variety has been bred for a long time, almost ex- clusively under the double mating system. As a result, the cockerel and pullet lines of blood are very definitely fixed, and it is of the greatest importance for success that the birds used in the matings should be of the right breeding. It is inadvisable under most circuriistances to cross the cock- erel and pullet lines. So important is the breeding back of the birds, and this, of course, holds true of all line-bred strains or families of any variety or breed, that a bird of the right breeding should often be selected for a mating in preference to one of far better quality but not of the right breeding.
It is also well to note here that solid black feathers, feathers partly black and partly barred, and feathers similar to the Dark Brahma hackle feathers, will be frequently found throughout the plumage of both male and female Barred Plymouth Rocks. The occurrence of these feathers does not indicate any impurity of blood, nor are they considered serious defects unless found in very large numbers. These oflF-colored feathers, and in particular the solid blacks, are numerous in the plumage of many of the very finest speci- mens, and are, of course, pulled out before the birds are shown. See Figs. 10 and 11.
The breeding of Barred Plymouth Rocks is such a special- ized business that it seems best to set forth the methods of mating as given by some of the individual breeders.
Cockerel mating. — A breeder of cockerel-bred birds describes his method of mating as follows : The male should be the finest quality of exhibition male possible, provided he is descended from a long line of high class exhibition males. He should be of good size, that is, of standard weight, but should not be more than a pound or two above standard. He should be a fairly quick growing bird, and should be fully matured in form and feather at an age of not less than
76 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
seven months, as there is a tendency for some strains of this variety to be slow in maturing.
The surface color of the male should be clean and even, with an underbarring consistent with the brilliant surfa?e color. It is most important that the surface color be even a11 over — that is, that the hackle, back, wing bows, saddle and tail coverts should be one even shade of color. This even- ness of color can be easily tested by pressing the bird's hackle back on the wing bows and saddle, when any varia- tion of color is at once perceived. In the cockerel-bred males more or less metallic will often be found on the wing bars, tail coverts and sickle feathers. This metallic shows as a greenish cast in the dark bars of the feathers and is a defect which should be guarded against in selecting males both for breeding and exhibition purposes. Under no cir- cumstances use a male with a smutty colored surface — that is, when the dark and white bars are not clearly defined and distinct, but the dark tends to run into the white bar. It is a mistake to try to clear up this color in the offspring by using a bright colored female. The white bar should be clean, distinct and snappy, and the black bar free from a brown edging. The contrast between the black and the white should be as distinct as possible, and the line of demarcation between the two bars very definite and clean-cut. The under color does not necessarily have to be heavily barred, but the barring should be well defined clear to the skin. See Figs. 32 and 33. The wing-flights and secondaries should be straight and distinctly marbled, and the barring should run straight across the wdng. If the barring in the wing of a male shows pronounced black and white, this denotes probable strength of barring throughout the entire plumage. Good strength of barring should also be shown in the fluff, as this is gener- ally one of the weak sections. A bird strong in wing and fluff barring, and even in surface color, will be strong in the underbarring of other sections. In general, in selecting a male to head the pen, pick one which is, as nearly as pos-
.»?);•
•»»»!
77
78 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
sible, in color, type and barring, exactly what you wish to see in the progeny.
In selecting females for this mating, first be sure that the breeding '" right — that is, that they are descended from a long line of high class exhibition males. The female should have a tail carriage slightly below standard requirements, and the tail should be well spread. She should also be broad and full feathered over the back, and this should be carried well up on to the tail, even to the extent of showing a slight cushion. It is from such females that the good, broad- backed males with full, long feathered saddles are secured. The comb should be low, evenly serrated, and have four, five or six points, which should be well defined in contour.
In color the female should be clean black and white on the surface, with no sign of smut. It is, however, very dif^cult to obtain absolute freedom from smut. The black bar on the surface should be two or three, or even four times as wide as the white bar, and the surface color should be even in every section. The underbarring should be narrow and well defined clear to the skin in all sections, with no sign of smutty color. See Fig. 33. The barring in the hackle should be especially straight across the feather in order to produce the finest hackles in the exhibition males. The black and white marbling of the wing should be very clear. It is very important that the tail barring be straight across the feathers. Some of the best individual females for the cockerel mating will have some entirely black feathers even in the wing flights. This denotes an abundance of pigment, and will produce stronger underbarring in the progeny. The barring in the fluff should be good, in fact, just as good as in the back. Cockerel-bred females are usually darker colored on the legs and beaks than exhibition females, but this does not hurt their breeding value for producing exhibition males.
In both sexes the barring on the breast should be straight and with a sharp contrast in color. If the barring is weak
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79
80 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
or poor in this section the barring on the lower breast and toward the thighs is apt to run pretty wide.
In this mating the following defects must be guarded against, so far as possible : Too large combs ; green eyes ; under color not well defined ; wdiite or cotton under color ; rreen legs in exhibition males ; double points to comb ; smutty feathers in wing bow^s ; slipped wings ; metallic on the wing bars, tail coverts and sickle feathers of males.
Pullet mating. — A breeder of the pullet line gives the following as his method of mating: The male to head this mating should be rather long in body, should carry the tail a trifle lower than the standard male, and have the width of back carried out proportionately in the width of tail. The tail should be fairly well spread, but the sickles and coverts do not necessarily need to be as fully furnished as in a show male. The breast should be wide and full, a flat breast being guarded against. The legs should be strong and set well apart, with no tendency toward knock-knees. The comb may be a trifle smaller than that of the standard or exhibition male. A very strong, bright red eye is desired. The ideal color of the male for this mating is the same as that of the ideal exhibition female, but the barring of the male runs much narrower than in the exhibition female, and this greater width of the dark bar in the female causes her to appear to be of darker shade than the pullet- bred male. While the male should be straight pullet-bred, even in such a line males will be found ranging widely in color from a medium strong color to a very light color. This difference in color should be due entirely to the differ- ence in the width of the dark bar, as the dark bar gives the color, and should not be due to any difference in the color of the dark bar itself. Have the white bar as white as pos- sible in both sexes, as the clearness and distinctness of the white bar adds materially to the breeding value of the bird. Provided the dark bar is ideal in color, but still the birds are of several shades of color due to th? difference in the width
81
82 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
of the dark bar, the success in breeding will depend upon the ability to combine the different shades of the male and female. The male showing the narrowest dark bars should be mated with the females showing the wider dark bars, and vice versa. This matter of the shade of the birds or the width of the dark bar practically resolves itself into a mating of feathers. Select a male that shows as clear and bright contrast between the light and dark bars as possible. The two colors should be clear and distinct, the white as white and the black as black as possible. See Fig. 34. This distinctness can often be found in the highest degree in the wing bows or shoulders of birds of both sexes, and can be used as a guide to color. Avoid any brown or grayish cast shading off the dark bar into the white. The line between the two bars should be clear and distinct.
The hackle of the male often shows a tendency to be a little wider or more open in barring than other sections, and a male good in other respects and showing this openness in hackle should not be discarded, as he may prove to be a most valuable breeder. If there is too fine a barring in the hackle of the male, this is apt to show in the female offspring as a dark or smutty appearing bar.
If the dark bar is more than equal to the width of the white bar in the under color of the back, which, however, is not often the case, the female offspring generally come indis- tinct and with slaty under color. Often cockerels, when getting their adult plumage, show a yellow cast in hackle, back, wing bows and saddle, but principally in hackle, which disappears when the bird is fully finished. This yellow cast is often mistaken for brassiness in the Barred Plymouth Rock male. The wing flights should show a good, clear, distinct, straight barring. Birds weak in this respect should not be used in the breeding pen If possible to get along with- out them, and If used, great care should be taken to offset the defect In the selection of females for the mating. Birds showing a good, strong fluff barring, both in surface and
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63
84 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF TOULTRY
under color, are as a rule considered very desirable as breeders.
The females for the pullet mating should be as near standard as possible, but if bred along the right lines may be used when they vary all the way from the narrow dark bar to the wide dark bar — that is, are too light or too dark — the weakness of the barring of the females being offset by the selection of a male strong in those points. The barring of the females must, however, be clear and distinct — that is, the black as intense as possible and the white clear. See Fig. 35. Avoid a brownish cast or dull color in the black bar. While the standard calls for back feathers ending in a black tip, they are frequently lacking in this respect, espe- cially in young birds, and this is a serious defect. Pullets often show good black-tipped feathers on wing bows and breast, and cockerels on hackle and back. Pullets generally show the most white tips in the back. However, young ])irds generally show improvement in this respect with age.
As in the case of the male, the barring of the wing flights should be straight, clear and distinct, and females weak in this respect should not be used if it is possible to avoid doing so. Even the finest of exhibition females rarely show solid yellow beaks and legs that are absolutely free from any foreign color. This is especially true of the beaks. Dark streaks or shading are present in the beaks and dark spots on the legs. Often pullets showing some dark in shank color molt in a fine yellow as hens. The clear yellow color is most desirable, however, and should be selected for where possil)le without sacrificing good color and barring.
The barring in both the male and female often is better in adult birds than in cockerels and pullets. Therefore do not discard young birds showing promise until they have fully matured. Early hatched birds of both matings some- times seem to show a brown, which is due to the fading incident to long exposure to the sun. The later hatched birds do not show this as much, since their mature plumage
THE AMERICAN CLASS
85
86
THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
THE AMERICAN CLASS 87
is not subjected to as much sun. This is responsible for the belief rather commonly held that later hatched birds are superior in color to early hatched birds.
The following defects must be guarded against, so far as possible, in this mating :
Green or light eyes ; weak, flat breasts, especially in males ; knock-knees and crooked toes, especially in males ; green shade or pale yellow legs in both sexes; dark spots on shanks in females ; slipped and twisted wings ; crooked backs (this defect is not necessarily transmitted to the off- spring) ; solid black feathers in wings (while it is prefer- able to use breeders, if possible, which are free from this defect, many high class specimens showing it may prove to be very valuable breeders, as the defect is not necessarily transmitted to the offspring. Solid black feathers in the wings may not be present in young birds, but may come in with age) ; smoky or mossy feathers in back of females ; uneven tipped feathers in back of females, that is, feathers some of which are tipped with white and some with black, showing no uniformity in the tipping.
In addition to the defects to be guarded against, as given under the cockerel and pullet matings, the defects listed for the breed in general (page 74) should also be consulted.
The White Plymouth Rock
This variety is probably the best in type and the most uniform in this respect of any of the Rocks. In breeding this variety it is usual to employ a single or standard mating, or to use a standard male with two types of females.
The male should be as near standard as possible. The color of the male, and of the females as well, should be a good, clear white, with no trace of creaminess in the quills. Often a small amount of black or dark ticking will appear in the wing and tail feathers. This should be guarded against, as it is likely to prove troublesome. Also avoid
88 THE MATING AXD BREEDING OF POULTRY
gray in the flight feathers. Special importance must be attached to the back of the male. The breadth of back must be carried throughout and there must be no tendency toward narrowing in at the tail. The tail should be well furnished, well spread, and carried rather low. Carriage of tail lower than called for by the standard seems to find favor in the show room, but breeders should be selected which are standard in tail carriage unless the females used show a tendency toward too high tails, when a male with lower carried tail should be used. In some males, the tail splits in the middle and the sickles fall between. This is undesirable and should be guarded against. See Fig. 30.
To mate with this male for the production of exhibition cockerels especially, select females which show a little cushion and which are a trifle shorter in back and a trifle higher on legs than exhibition females. They should also be full in fluff, the cushion and fluff forming a circle when viewed from the rear. The cushion and full fluff tend to give a nicer finished back and tail on the cockerels.
For the production of exhibition females, and of males as well, select females as near to standard as possible, showing a full, deep breast and a short, well-spread tail, carried nearly on a straight line with the back, and with as little narrowing of the back at the tail as possible. By well-spread tail is meant a spread from side to side, as viewed from above. The tail should be slightly arched, but not duck shaped — that is, not flat on top.
Breeders of both sexes should be up to or slightly above the standard weight, as it is difiicult to get back standard size once it is lost.
In addition to the general defects for the breed as a whole (page 74), the following defects must be especially guarded against, so far as possible, in this variety :
Black or dark ticking; creaminess in quills; horn color at butt of quills of flight feathers; slipped wings; green peppering in the shanks ; stubs ; split tails.
THE AMERICAN CLASS 89
The Buff Plymouth Rock
In this variety there is a tendency for the males especially to be set too high on legs, that is, to be stilty, and also to be lacking or flat in breast. Combs which are too large are also very frequent.
In mating this variety it is not necessary to resort to double mating, as high class standard specimens of both sexes can be produced from a single or standard mating.
In selecting breeders for a standard mating, choose birds of both sexes which approach the standard as nearly as pos- sible, both in color and type. Evenness of color in both male and female is especially desirable, and each bird should be one even shade from head to tail. The color of the male will, of course, be somewhat heavier than that of the fe- males, but evenness must be emphasized in each bird. The general surface color of the females selected should be the same shade of buff as the breast of the male. Select in so far as possible birds which are free from white, black or a peppering of either color in the wing flights and the main tail feathers of both sexes, and in the sickles of males. Of these two foreign colors, black and white, black is generally considered the less harmful. There is a decided tendency for the females to be mealy on the shoulders. By mealiness is meant an unevenness of color which causes the surface of the feathers to appear as though sprinkled with some lighter colored substance, such as meal. In fact mealiness is one of the greatest faults in all buff females.
\\^hite in the under color, especially of the hackle, back and saddle, and at the root of the tail of males, is a common and troublesome defect, and one which is apt to develop or to increase with age. Therefore cockerels sound in this respect are more valuable as breeders than those which show it even slightly. Old males sound in this particular are especially valuable breeders of under color. There is also a tendency for the quills of the feathers to be very light buff
90 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
or white close to the body in both sexes. This is especially true of the quills of the main wing and tail feathers, which seldom if ever show a good bufif clear to the skin. In some specimens there is a tendency toward a darker colored edging or lacing on some of the feathers, which should be avoided. Some birds show a pinkish cast to the buff under color, and such specimens are most likely to be sound in surface color and to produce offspring sound in surface and under color.
While double mating is not necessary in order to produce standard specimens of both sexes, it is often resorted to. When this is done the matings should be selected as follows :
Cockerel mating. — The male should be standard and absolutely sound in color, that is, free from any black or white in wings or tail and from a reddish cast on hackle, back, wing bows and saddle, or from a red edging to the front of the hackle.
The females must be bred from a cockerel line and sound in color. The shade of their general surface color should be slightly darker than that of the male's breast. This is a somewhat darker shade than that ordinarily sought for in exhibition females. A very important point is for the fe- males to have as rich and deep an under color as possible, extending clear to the skin. In many instances such females will have almost as good an under color as the male. This is the mating depended upon to produce exhibition males, while the females are usually too dark in surface for exhibi- tion. Occasionally, however, a female is produced from such a mating with light enough surface color to be suitable for exhibition, and such females are usually very good because strong in under color.
Pullet mating. — The male used must be from a pullet line and may not be. as even colored as in the cockerel mating. In fact, -; deeper color on the wing bows and shoulders tends to offset any inclination to mealiness in the surface of the females, which is quite a troublesome defect.
THE AMERICAN CLASS 91
The breast of the male should be of the same shade as the general surface color of the exhibition female, or, in other words, of the females used in this mating. The male's breast should be absolutely free from shafting, for, if any is present, the pullets from this mating are almost sure to show some shafting throughout, which is a serious defect. In surface color the male should be as nearly sound as pos- sible, but may be lighter both in surface and under color than the standard, if out of a high class exhibition female. The females of this mating should be as near standard as possible and free from shafting, mealiness or patchiness. By patchiness is meant the presence of irregular spots or patches of different shades of color. The under color of these females need not be as deep as that of the cockerel- bred females, but should be bufiF with a density in proportion to the surface color.
The following are defects which must be especially avoided, in so far as possible, in this variety, in addition to those defects which are common to all the varieties of the breed (see page 74): Too large, coarse combs; thumb marks ; lopped combs ; white, black or a peppering of either in wing flights or in main tail feathers of both sexes ; white edging to the sickle feathers of males ; shafting, mealiness and patchiness in females ; unevenness of color of the hackle, back, wing bows and saddle of males; willow or light-colored shanks, especially in females ; white in under color; white or very light buff quills close to the body; feathers tending to be laced.
The Silver Penciled Plymouth Rock
Both the single and double mating systems are used in breeding this variety. In double mating, select the breeders as follows :
Cockerel mating. — The male should be standard in color, with sharp, clear laced saddle and hackle. The breast and
92 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
body color should be black. The females of this mating should be rather dark in color, with black penciling and clear, sharply striped neck hackles.
Pullet mating. — The male should show some frosting and white splashing on breast, thighs and fluff, but not up under throat. If a male is used with too much light color or mottling of white up under the throat, the females are apt to run too light in that section. Occasional males even show some lacing of gray on the sides of the body, and these are especially valuable pullet breeders. The females should be standard in color.
A single or standard mating is sometimes used with con- siderable success if the breeder prefers the heavier black penciling in the females. For such a mating these black penciled females are mated to a standard male.
Another single mating which may be used is to select birds of both sexes which are as near the standard as possible. It is important if exhibition birds of both sexes are to be secured in the offspring from this mating that the male used should be out of a well-penciled female.
In addition to the defects for the breed as a whole, the following common breeding defects of this variety must be avoided in so far as possible :
Red on wings of males; solid w^hite in flight and main wing feathers of males, other than the white edging of the primaries and secondaries called for by the standard ; brassy backs of males; inclination to brownish cast in- stead of gray in females.
For additional information on mating for Silver Pen- ciled color, the reader should refer to the Silver Penciled Wyandotte (page 113). and to the Dark Brahma (page 140).
The Partridge Plymouth Rock
In breeding this variety sonie breeders use the single or standard mating, while others resort to a double mating.
THE AMERICAN CLASS
93
In the single mating, select a male with rich, medium red color, neither the light orange that frequently occurs nor a red so dark that it is difficult to distinguish the
Fig. 38. Well marked Partridge Plymouth Rock feathers. M indicates male
and F female. (PhotoKraph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United
States Department of Agriculture.)
94 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
stripe of the hackle and saddle. It is important that the red top color of the male be even in shade. It is also im- portant that the striping in hackle and saddle be a lus- trous greenish black and that the black does not extend through the end of the feathers, but that the edging of red extends clear around the end of the feather. The hackle and saddle should be free from white or cotton under color, and this is especially important in the neck. The under color of the body should be slate of medium shade. The breast and the fluff should be solid black. Some breeders claim that a male with brown in the fluff will breed better females, but this is denied by others. The male should have clear yellow legs.
The females for the single or standard mating should be mahogany in color and of even shade. The penciling should be regular in all sections of the body, from well up on the throat to the tail and fluff. The shanks of the females are very apt to show dark, but those as near a clear yellow as possible should be selected.
When double mating is employed, the matings are made as follows :
Pullet mating. — The male should be lighter in the red sections than the exhibition male, approaching a lemon shade. He should also show a red ticking on the breast, and a slight amount of red in the fluff. He should show a lighter under color than the exhibition male in all sec- tions except the hackle and tail, where it should be as dark as possible.
The females for this mating should be as near standard as possible.
Cockerel mating. — The male should show a fine, clear, cherry red of even shade in all red sections. The striping in hackle, back and saddle should be clear and sharp, the black showing a good sheen, and not extending through the end of the feathers.
THE AMERICAN CLASS 95
The females for this mating should be of standard color, but showing a distinct greenish sheen.
In mating this variety, the following defects in ad- dition to those common to the breed (page 74) should be guarded against in so far as possible :
Light eyes; black striping running through end of hackle and saddle feathers of males so that there is no red edging showing clear around the end of the feather; brown shafting in the hackle and saddle striping of males ; white in tail and wings, especially in males ; dark legs, particularly in females ; stubs ; too light colored fe- males with lemon hackles; stippling in the tail coverts of females.
For additional information with respect to mating for Partridge color, the reader is referred to the Partridge Cochin (page 147).
The Columbian Plymouth Rock
This variety has a tendency to fail in type, often being too rangy and carrying the tail too high. There is also a tendency for the fowls to run too light in color — that is, the black sections are apt to be faded instead of the good intense black which is desired in order to show a strong contrast to the white. This is particularly true of the hackles of the males. To offset this tendency, it is cus- tomary to use breeders which have a dark slate under color.
In mating this variety, both the single or standard mating and the double mating are employed. The single mating is more common and is advised.
In the single mating, select birds of both sexes which have hackle feathers as near as possible clear black, with white edges running all the way around the point. The color of these feathers should be a positive black and white. The tail should be a solid black. In the females the tail coverts should have a white lacing, while it: the
96 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
males, the lesser tail coverts and some of the saddle feathers should be black with white lacing. The sur- face color of both sexes should be a clean, distinct black and white, with a bluish white under color. The under color may, in fact, be quite dark, even to the extent of the fluff showing a bluish tinge on the surface. For- merly, in order to increase the black of the wing feathers, there was a tendency to use females showing black on the surface of the back. vSuch females or males showing too heavy a striping in hackle, or birds of either sex showing black in the surface of the feathers on the sides of the fluff or the body feathers just in front of fluff should not, however, be used. In general in this mating, keep away from birds as breeders showing a pure white under color, and use those showing a pure white surface color.
\\'here the double mating system is used, the fol- lowing matings are made :
Cockerel mating. — Select a standard colored male with a good, strong green sheen in all black parts. The hackle should be clearly and distinctly striped clear to the skin, while the saddle is not heavily laced, the striping running about one-half way down in the under color. The back should be absolutely clean in color. The main tail feathers should be a solid black, the black running clear to the base of the feathers. The fluff should be white, ending with white at the skin.
The females should be of standard type. The feathers should be broad. The hackle lacing should come well around in front of the neck, while the back should show no ticking in surface. The under color of back should be a strong, bluish white. The wings should show strong color, the black and white being distinct and clearly de- fined. Good, narrow, sharp lacing is desired in the tail coverts.
Pullet mating. — The male should be of good type and
THE AMERICAN CLASS 97
head points. He should be more heavily colored in all sec- tions, including under color, than called for by the standard. The saddle and hackle should both be long and flowing and heavily striped. The tail should be profusely furnished with coverts which have a distinct and narrow lacing running the full length of the feather and free from brown color. It is very important to have strong black coloring in the wing primaries and secondaries, the black and white being dis- tinct and free from peppering. The females for this rnating should be lighter than standard, a white under color of fluff being desired. The lacing of the hackle and tail coverts should, however, be as distinct and well defined as possible. The following defects, in addition to those common to the breed (page 74). should be especially guarded against in so far as possible in breeding this variety :
Too large comb ; too many points to comb ; side sprigs ; too rang}^ in type; tails carried too high; black in the surface of back of female ; birds too small in size ; stubs and down; black in surface of feathers at sides of fluff ?nd the body feathers just in front of fluff.
Additional information as to breeding Columbian color will be found under the Light Brahma (page 134), the color scheme of which is identical with that of the Columbian varieties. It must be kept in mind, however, that the Columbian Plymouth Rock is a newer variety than the Liglrt Brahma and that it has not as yet been developed to the same degree of perfection.
The Wyandotte
The Wyandotte is a well-rounded bird and therefore a bird of curves. There should be no angles in the outline and no straight lines. The \\ yandotte*" must be a well- balanced fowl, and to achieve this balance the legs must be under the center of the bird and the distance from the top of the back to the bottom of the feet should equal that from the
98
THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
breast to the end of the tail. The body should be horizontal and a good depth of body must be maintained, as there is a tendency for some birds to lack in this particular. The Wyandotte size should be maintained, but extra large and
coarse birds are not desirable as breeders, since they are almost sure to lose the roundness and compactness of shape desired. Neither are birds which tend to be too rangy or too narrow - bodied desirable. See Fig. 39. Breadth of body and back is neces- sary in order to maintain . the meat - carrying carcass.
The comb of the Wyandotte is rose and of medium size. It should not be or be pebbled, the wattles. It of the head, and which follows the should not, how- to cause a depres-
Fig. 39. Buff Wyandotte male, which is too rangy, too flat in back, and which has a comb too large and coarse. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal In- dustry, United States Department of Agriculture.)
smooth, but show slight indentations with a texture somewhat similar to should be curved, following the shape should terminate in a well-defined spike neck. See Fig. 2, head 4. The spike ever, press against the neck so closely r.s
THE AMERICAN CLASS 99
sion in the feathers. If the comb shows any raise it should be at the front and not at the back of the head. Frequently the comb is too large and beefy, or too high. See Fig. 39. This is especially true of males. Sometimes the spike is embedded in the rear of the comb, as though it had been driven into it. Occasionally there is a double spike to the comb. A spike extending straight out or inclining upward is a defect.
The principal defect found in the eyes is the occurrence of those too light or green in color. This may be due in some cases to age, and, if that is the case, should not count as severely against an older bird as a breeder as though it existed in the bird as a cockerel or pullet. A sunken eye is also undesirable, and this appearance may be given to the eye by overhanging brows.
The ear lobe should, of course, be red, the principal defects being paleness and white in the lobe. (See page 71.)
The head and comb should be round, as well as other sections, the curve starting from the end of the bill. A narrow head should be avoided. The neck should be short and well curved, well furnished with abundant hackle. If the neck is too long, the curve is not so good, and it tends to break the curve of the round bird. The neck should not show a flatness in the hackle at the base of the skull, but this place should be well filled in and rounded out so as to carry out the unbroken line of the head and neck.
The back gives the appearance of being short. As a matter of fact, it should not be extremely short, nor should it be too long, but should be medium in length. Where backs are too short, attempts are frequently made to correct this fault by increasing the length of the tail. This does not help the back and only makes the tail out of proportion. In- creased length of back must be obtained by an increased length of keel. Too long a back is not, however, desired, as it destroys the typical Wyandotte shape and tends toward straight lines in the back. The back shows a short space
100 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF TOULTRY
above the shoulders which is level and then rises toward the tail, blending smoothly and evenly with that section. In fact, it is difficult to see just where the back leaves off and the tail begins, and for this reason the Wyandotte often appears to have a much shorter back than is really the case. Avoid any angularity of back. See Fig. 39. The back should be broad, with a broad and well-furnished saddle in the male and a slight cushion or fullness of back held well up by a well-spread tail in the female. This gives the back line of the female, from the back to the end of the tail, a slightly convex outline without any appearance of a Cochin cushion. The breadth of back is carried out in the breadth of the body generally, so that the side line of the fowl, as viewed from above, shows smooth and even, without any hollows or indentations.
In order to be typically Wyandotte in shape, the breast must be broad, full and prominent. Too often specimens are lacking in this section. The breast should not be so low. however, as to cover the hock line, but should cut in just above the hock line. Avoid a bird shov.-ing a dish or saucer- shaped breast, that is. one showing any tendency to be con- cave, especially on the sides, or one whose throat shows a prominent gullet.
The wings should be carried level and should not be too long. They must also be folded snugly and held in place. Low carried, slanting wings are more common in males than in females. The wing points should be well covered, so as to give a smooth, unbroken line to the side of the body, with no indication of any indentation. Well-covered wing points are more likely to be lacking in the female. A bird with a slipped or split Aving should be discarded as a breeder.
The tail should be fairly short and well spread, especially at the base. If the tail is too high and long, it gives the appearance of a short back. A pinched tail is to be avoided. The sickle feathers of the male should be pliable and of medium length, so that they just nicely curve over the ends
THE AMERICAN CLASS
101
of the main tail feathers, giving the tail a short, cobby appearance. See Fig. 40. AMiile the carriage of the tail is somewhat higher than that of the Plymouth Rock, espe- cially in the female, it should not be too high. The top of the tail should be about on a level with the junction of the head and neck. A fairly full fluff is desired, but this should not be so full as to hide the
thighs.
The legs.
FifT. 40. White Wyandotte male with tail feathers so long as to destroy the short, cobby appearance of tail desired. ( Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.)
a s mentioned
before. should
be strong, well
spread, and the
shanks and toes
of medium
length. The
shank is shorter
than that of the
Plymouth Rock,
with the result
that the fowl is set closer to the ground, just revealing the
hocks, but should not be so short that the hocks are not
shown. The shank should be round and full, tapering from
the hock to the feet. A flat leg or shin, sometimes called
''hawk leg," must be avoided. Stubs and down occur rather
frequently and the former in particular must be rigidly
selected against. In color the shanks and toes should be a
good bright yellow. Some difficulty is experienced in the
legs showing a green or willow color or green spots. Also,
102 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
in the Partridge Wyandottes the shanks of the females in particular show dark to a marked degree.
The feathering of the Wyandottes is somewhat looser and more fluffy than that of the other breeds of the American Class. To maintain this character, feathers of too coarse a texture must be avoided. However, the other extreme should not be gone to and the strength of the web should be maintained or there is danger that the feathers will become so fluffy as to be Cochiny in appearance.
In mating Wyandottes the following defects common to the breed must be guarded against in so far as possible : too large and coarse birds ; too small birds ; too rangy or too narrow-bodied birds ; lack of breast ; too large, too beefy, and too high comb ; spike of comb turning up or straight back ; a raise in the back of the comb ; spike embedded in rear of comb ; double spike ; too light or green eye ; sunken eye ; white in ear lobe ; narrow head ; too long a neck, not arched ; a flatness in the hackle at base of skull ; too short or too long back; angle between back and tail; dish or saucer-shaped breast ; prominent gullet ; slipped or split wing; too long tail ; pinched tail ; too high tail ; shanks too long or too short; flat or "hawk" leg or shin; stubs and down ; willow or green shank or green spots on shanks ; feathers lacking strength of web so as to appear Cochiny; back narrow across saddle and at base of tail so that it fails to carry the width across the shoulders for the entire length of the body ; too low on legs so as to hide hocks ; fluff so full as to hide hocks.
The Silver Wyandotte
In mating this variety it is customary to use a single or standard mating. While some breeders claim that double mating is necessary, high class exhibition specimens of both sexes have been and are being produced from single matings. Birds of both sexes which are as near standard as possible should be selected. The lacing wants to be narrow and as
THE AMERICAN CLASS
103
clean and clearly defined as possible, the line between the black and white being very distinct. Be sure that the black lacing does not show a white edging, which is known as
s/Liy^/p in^yi^/vooTr/f
^^J-v^/V-vi^J-"
Fig. 41. Well marked Silver Wyandotte feathers. M indicates male and F female. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.)
104
THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
frosting, as this is very objectionable. This frosting is especially likely to occur in females in all sections. A female desirable for breeding in other respects, but showing a little frosting in breast, should not be discarded, but offset this weakness by mating her to a male free from frosting in breast. In males frosting most frequently appears in breast and fluff. Note the frosted breast and fluff feathers of the
male in Fig. 41. It is also impor- tant that the lacing be nar- row so that the w h i t e centers
5^
are large.
How-
Fig. 42. Standard or exhibition colored Silver Wyan- dotte male. Compare the feather markings with those of the male shown in Fig. 43. (Photograph from the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.)
feather, and should show no It is also very important that ers are clean white and free specks or penciled markings. Where this color occurs in
ever, the ex- treme narrow lacing of the Sebright is not desired, as a heavier lacing is more attractive in a bird of this size. The nar- rower the lac- ing, the more open it is said to be. The center of the feather should be oval in shape, following the shape of the
tendency to be pointed. the centers of the feath-
from any black streaks^
THE AMERICAN CLASS
105
the white, the feather is said to be mossy. Often females molt mossy after the first year. Those that have held their clean lacing are more desirable as breeders, and the male should also be out of a hen that has molted absolutely clear on back. It is desirable that the male be well laced in saddle, back, fluff and wings especially. It is also important that the feathers of the wing bars of the male have clear white centers and be free from smut- tiness, that is, the black of the lacing extending into the white center. In both sexes the lacing should be as even as possible in all sections, so as to avoid any appearance of patchiness. The birds for breeding should show good black primary feath- ers in the wing, with only a lower edging of white. There is, however, a tend- ency for the primaries t o show too much white, but this is not a serious breeding defect.
It must be kept in mind that while most of the feathers of both sexes are white laced with black, the hackle of the
Figr. 43. Hen feathered Silver Wyandotte male. Males showing this character of feathering and mark- ings which closely resemble that of the female, sometimes occur and are valuable to use in heading a pullet mating where double mating is employed. Compare with Fi?. 42. (Photograph from the Bu- reau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.)
106 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
female and the hackle and saddle of the male are black laced with white and with a white center extending along the shaft. It is important that the white lacing extend clear around the point of the hackle feathers. If it does not, the black ends of the feathers will cause a dark appearance or a dark ring where the neck joins the body. It is hard to get good laced hackles in the females, as they are inclined to be black with little or no lacing and striped with white along the quill. A slate under color is desirable in both sexes. The males, however, are particularly likely to be weak in this respect, showing a white under color next to the skin.
In breeding this variety for excellence of lacing there has been a tendency to overlook shape, so that the birds are likely to be lacking in type. It is most important to give type serious consideration in selecting the breeders.
In mating this variety, guard against the following defects, in so far as possible, in addition to those common to the breed (page 102) : smutty wing bars and shoulders ; too narrow or too heavy lacing; frosting; mossiness, both in young birds and in hens that have molted mossy ; lacing of hackle not extending around the end of the feathers.
The Golden Wyandotte
In this variety the males have a tendency to be a trifle too rangy and too narrow, and in consequence to be a little under w^eight. The females are likely to lack a trifle in breast and not to be quite broad enough. In breeding, the single or standard mating and the double mating systems are both employed. The single mating seems to be preferred.
In the single mating, both the sexes should be as near standard as possible. The mating is practically the same as that of the Silver Wyandotte, except that a golden bay color replaces the white of the latter. Select for breeders birds showing clean, narrow, distinct lacing, with good, large golden ba}^ centers to the feathers. Avoid a golden bay
THE AMERICAN CLASS 107
outer edging of the black lacing which is called frosting by some breeders, and which corresponds to the frosting in the Silver variety. This is likely to occur in all sections of the females and in the breast and fluff of males. Avoid mossy feathers and females as breeders which have molted in mossy; that is, where there is a tendency for the black to mix with the bay. Use a male that is out of a female which has molted absolutely clear on back. He should also be open laced on breast and fluff.
As in the Silver ^^^'andotte, the lacing is reversed in the hackle of female and the hackle and saddle of male, show- ing a golden bay lacing instead of a black lacing, while the feather is black with a golden bay center extending along the quill. See that the lacing of the hackle feathers extends clear around the ends of the feathers, thus preventing them from being black tipped. If males have good, clear striping in the hackle and saddle, the hackle will usually come good in the female offspring.
In selecting for color, do not lean toward the yellow. The correct color is golden bay, which should approach a mahogany shade. Too dark a shade must not be selected, however, or the females will prove troublesome by molting in mossy.
In the double mating the breeders should be selected as follows :
Cockerel mating. — Use a standard or exhibition male which has a good green sheen in all black sections and is free from purple, and whose under color is very dark slate. It is important that the male in this mating have a good comb. The females should be a little darker than standard, the lacing being even in all sections, but somewhat heavier than in the exhibition female, but as distinct as possible. If weak combs have to be used on either sex in this mating, it should be on the females and not on the male.
Pullet mating. — The male for this mating should be a trifle lighter in color than the standard, the hackle striping
108 THE MATING AND BREEDING OF POULTRY
and lacing should be very distinct, but the shade of color should be lighter. The under color likewise should be a lighter shade of slate. The breast lacing should be very clear and distinct and standard in color. The feathers of the back should have good, large golden centers, running larger in this respect than those of the cockerel-bred or exhibition male. If the lacing is clear and black, it will do no harm if the golden centers of the feathers show a little moss. If males are used having a fluff powdered with golden, they tend to get females with powdered fluff and a good deal of frosting, which are not desired. The females used should be of good size; that is, up to standard or a little larger. In other respects they should be standard. Females showing a small golden center in hackle feathers tend to get females with good clear centers in back. It is important that the combs of the females be small and as n