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ElTMULOGiCAL CHART OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
PARTICIPIAL
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THE SCIENCE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
A
PRACTICAL GRAMMAR;
IN WHICH
WORDS, PHRASES, AND SENTENCES
ARE CLASSIFIED
ACCORDING TO THEIR OFFICES, AND THEIR RELATION TO EACH OTHER.
ILLUSTRATED BY
A
COMPLETE SYSTEM OF DIAGRAMS.
" Speech is the body of thought."
jtjjm 1
BY S J ' W. CLAR K, A. M.,
Principal of East Bloomrleld Academy.
NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY A. S. BARNES & CO.,
51 JOHN STREET.
CINCINNATI: 'M
DERBY, BRADLEY & CO. 1847.
CI
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1847, by
S. W. CLARK,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the North- ern District of New York.
Stereotyped by C. Davison & Co., 33 Gold St.
PREFACE.
The Grammar of a Language, Gluinctilian has justly remarked, is like the foundation of a building ; the most important part, although out of sight, and not always properly valued by those most interested in its condition.
In the opinion of many modern educators there is a tendency, on the part of all, to neglect this important branch of English Education — not so much from a conviction that the science is not important, as that there is a radical defect in the common method of presenting it to the attention of the scholar. This was the sentiment of the Author when, some ten years since, he was called to the supervision of a Literary Institution in which was established a department for the education of Teachers. Accordingly a recourse was had to oral instruction, and for the convenience of teach- ers a manuscript grammar was prepared, which embodied the principles of the science and the Author's mode of presenting it. These principles and this method have been properly tested by numerous and advanced classes during the seven years last past. The manuscript has in the mean time from continued additions unexpectedly grown to a book. It has received the favorable notice of teachers, and its publication has been, by teachers, repeatedly solicited. To these solicitations the Author is con- strained to yield, and in the hope and belief that the work will " add to the stock of human knowledge,'"' or at least tend to that result, by giving an increased interest to the study of the English Language, it is with diffidence submitted to the public.
In revising the work for publication, an effort has been made to render it simple in style, comprehensive in matter, adapted to the capacities of the younger pupil, and to the wants of the more advanced scholar. It is confidently believed that the Method of teaching Grammar herein sug- gested is the true method. The method adopted by most text-books may be well suited to the wants* of foreigners in first learning our language. They need first, to learn our Alphabet — the powers and sounds, and the proper combinations of letters — the definition of words and their classifi-
IV PREFACE.
cation according to definitions. But the American youth is presumed to know all this, and be able to catch the thought conveyed by an English sentence — in fine, to be able to use practically the language before he attempts to study it as a science. Instead, therefore, of beginning with the Alphabet, and wasting his energies on technical terms and ambiguous words, he should be required to deal with thought as conveyed by sen- tences. Accordingly this introduction to the Science of Language begins with a Sentence, properly constructed, and investigates its structure by developing the offices of the words which compose it ; making the office rather than the form of a word determine the class to which it belongs.
As an important auxiliary in the analysis of Sentences a system of Diagrams has been invented and introduced in the work. It is not claim- ed for the Diagrams that they constitute any essential part of the Science of Language — nor do Geometrical Diagrams constitute such a part of the Science of Geometry ; Maps, of Geography ; or figures, of Arithmetic. But it will not be denied that these are of great service in the study of those branches. Experience has established their importance.
Let then the use of Diagrams, reduced as they are here to a complete system, be adopted in the analyses of Sentences, and it is believed that teachers will confess that their utility is as obvious in the science of Lan- guage, as it is in the science of Magnitude ; and for precisely the same reason, that an abstract truth is made tangible, the eye is permitted te assist the mind, the memory is relieved that the judgment may have a full charter of all the mental powers.
Conscious that novelty as such should not bear sway in the investiga- tions of Science, the Author has been careful neither to depart from the ordinary method of presenting the Science, for the sake of novelty ; nor has he from dread of novelty rejected manifest improvements. The old Nomenclature is retained, not because a better could not be proposed, but because the advantages to be gained would not compensate for the con- fusion necessarily consequent to such a change. But the terms purely technical have been introduced as a natural inference from facts previously deduced. Principles and Definitions are preceded by such Remarks as have fully established their propriety. The inductive method of arriving at truth has been followed throughout — with that it stands or falls.
East Bloomfield Academy, \ October, 1847. J
INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE.
" God moves in a mysterious way, His wonders to perform ; He plants his footsteps in the sea, And rides upon the storm."
Quest. Who is the person concerning whom something is asserted
in the lines above ? Ans. Something is said concerning " God."
What is said of God ? A. u God moves.
How does God move ? A* u In a mysterious way."
What jtvay 1 A. a Mysterious way."
What mysterious way % A. a A mysterious way."
" God moves in a mysterious way "- — why 1 A. " His wonders to 'perform"
To perform what wonders % A. u His wonders."
Concerning what is something more said ? A. Something more is said concerning " God"
"Why do you think so % A. Because, in this connection, " He " means God.
What is said concerning God % A. " He plants"
He plants what ? A. "Footsteps."
6 PART L— INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE.
Q. What footsteps ■? A " His footsteps."
He plants his footsteps— where ? A " 7» tfAe 5ga."
In what sea 2 A "TAesea."
What more is said of God 9 it. Hebrides."
Rides /i?Aer£ ? A " £/p<m the storm?1
Upon 7£A&£ storm ? A " 2%e storm."
In the lines above, what is the use or office of the word "God?" A. It is used as the name of the being who " moves"
What is the use of the word u moves ?" A To tell what God does.
Use of " in a mysterious way V* A. To tell how God moves.
Use of " a ?" A To tell what way.
Use of " mysterious ?" .4. To tell what kind of way.
Use of " way ?» A. As the name of the thing in which God moves.
Use of " his ?" A. To tell what or whose wonders.
Use of " wonders." A. As the name of the things which God moves to perform.
Use of " to perform wonders ?" A. To tell wherefore God moves in a mysterious way.
Use of "he?" A. As a substitute for the name of Him who plants and rides
Use of " plants ?"
INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE. 7
A. To tell what " He " does.
Use of " his V A. To tell whose footsteps.
Use of "footsteps?" A. To tell what he plants.
Use of "in the sea?" A. To tell where " he plants his footsteps."
Use of " the ?" A. To tell what sea.
Use of "sea?" A. As the name of the thing in which he plants his footsteps.
Use of "and?" A. To add a second thing which He does.
Use of " rides ?" A. To tell what he does.
Use of " upon the storm ?" A. To tell where he rides.
Use of "the?" A. To tell what storm.
Use of " storm ?" A. As the name of the thing upon which he rides.
Remark.— -The young Pupil has seen in this exposition of the four lines written above, that words have meaning, and that when they are properly put together, they convey the thoughts of the person who wrote them, to those who read them.
Again : As these and all other words have appropriate sounds attached to them, they may be spoken ; and persons who hear them, may have the same thoughts that they would have on reading them.
It is plain, then, that one may, by speaking or by writing, (and sometimes by motions,) communicate his thoughts to others. The process by which this is done, is called Language.
PART I. LANGUAGE— GRAMMAR.
LANGUAGE,
Definition !• Language is the expression of thought and feeling.
Remark. It is customary to give to every science a name, by which it may be distinguished from other sciences; accordingly, people have agreed to call the science which treats of Language,
GRAMMAR.
Deft 2t Grammar is the Science of Language.
English Grammar is the Science which investigates the prin- ciples and determines the proper construction of the English Language.
It is also the Art of communicating thought by proper words.
Rem* Language consists in articulate sounds, represented by Letters, combined into Words, properly arranged in Sentences.
Deft 3t A Letter is a mark used to indicate a sound, or to modify the sound of another letter.
Rem* The science which treats of Letters, is called Orthography.
Deft 4t A Word is a combination of letters, used as the sign of an idea.
Examples — God — mysterious — perform — wonders. Rem* Words are combined into Phrases and Sentences.
Deft 5# A Phrase Is two or more words, pro- perly arranged, not constituting a distinct propo- sition.
Examples — " In a mysterious way " — -" Upon the storm"
Rem* Words constitute a Phrase, when they collectively perform a distinct, individual office.
Deft 6t A Sentence is an assemblage of words, so arranged as to express a fact.
Examples — " God moves in a mysterious way." Rem* A Sentence always constitutes a distinct proposition.
CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.
WORDS.
A Word is a combination of letters, used as the sign of an idea.
CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS.
Remark. In a Discourse, words are used
1. As names of persons, places, or things.
2. As substitutes for names or facts.
3. As qualifiers of names.
4. To assert a fact, i. e.t an act, being, or state.
5. To modify an assertion or qualifier.
6. To express relations of things or thoughts.
7. To introduce — or connect words and sentences.
8. To express a sudden emotion. Hence — in respect to their uses,
Principle* Words are distinguished as
1. JVouns,
2. PronourtSj
3. Adjectives,
4. Verbs,
5. Adverbs,
6. Prepositions,
7. Conjunctions, and
8. Exclamations.
Def. 7. A Noun is a word used as the name of a being, place, or thing*.
Examples — God — man — sea — way- — wonders.
Def. 8. A Pronoun is a word used for a noun.
Examples — he — it — who — her — him — whom.
Def. 9. An Adjective is a word used to qualify or otherwise describe a noun or pronoun.
Examples — Mysterious [way] — His [wonders] — the [storm.]
Def. 10. A Verb is a word used to express an act, being, or state of a noun or pronoun.
Examples — [God] moves— [He] plants. 1*
10 PART I. WORDS. PHRASES.
Deft lit An Adverb is a word used to modify the signification of a verb, an adjective, or another modifier.
Examples- — [He writes] well — very [good boys.]
Def# 12. A Preposition is a word used to ex- press a relation of other words to each other. Examples — [moves] in [way] — [Books are] on [the table.]
Def« 13* A Conjunction is a word used to in- troduce a sentence, or to connect other words.
Examples — And [can I leave thee] — [Henry] and [Homer came.]
Def# 14. An Exclamation is a word used to express a sudden emotion.
Examples — O ! [Liberty] — Ah ! [the treasure.]
Note. — Words are often used for rhetorical purposes merely — having no direct, grammatical construction. Hence,
Def. 15. Words of Euphony are words used only for the sake of sound.
Obs. — They are used —
1. To render other words emphatic.
As, " John and Homer, and even Henry, came to the Lecture." " The moon herself is lost in heaven." — Ossian.
2. To introduce a sentence —
As, " Come, pass along." " Now then, we are prepared to take up the main question." " There are no idlers here."
3. To preserve the Rhythm in a line in poetry — As, a I sit me down a pensive hour to spend."
PHRASES.
A Phrase is two or more words properly ar- ranged, not constituting a distinct proposition.
CLASSIFICATION OF ^PHRASES.
Rem* — Phrases are used as substitutes for nouns, adjectives, and ad- verbs : or, they are independent in their construction. Hence,
CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASES. 11
Prim Phrases are distinguished as —
1. Substantive.
2. Adjective.
3. Adverbial.
4. Independent.
Def. 16t A Substantive Phrase is a phrase used as the subject or object of a verb, or the object of a preposition.
Example — To obey God [is the highest duty of man.]
Deft 17. An Adjective Phrase is a phrase used to qualify a noun or pronoun.
Example — {The lips] of the wise [dispense knowledge.]
Def. 18. An Adverbial Phrase is a phrase used to modify the signification of a verb, adjective, or adverb.
Example — [God moves] in a mysterious way.
Deft 19# An Independent Phrase is a phrase not joined to any other word going before in con- struction.
Example — The hour having arrived, [we commenced the ex- ercises.]
Prin. — By their forms, phrases are classified as — Preposi- tional, Infinitive, Participial, and Independent.
Def. 19, a. — A Prepositional Phrase is introduced by a pre- position having a noun, or a word used for a noun, as its object of relation.
As, " In a mysterious way."
Def. 19, b.— An Infinitive Phrase is introduced by the pre- position to, having a verb as its object of relation.
As, To love — to study — to be diligent.
Def. 19, c. — A Participial Phrase is introduced by a parti- ciple, and commonly has one or more adjuncts, or objects of an action.
As, Scaling yonder peak — wheeling near its brow.
Def. 19, d. — An Independent Phrase is introduced by a noun or pronoun followed by a participle depending upon it. As, John having lost one lesson, the prize was given to Henry.
12 PART I. — SENTENCES.
SENTENCES.
A sentence is an assemblage of words, so ar- ranged as to express a fact.
ANALYSIS OF A SENTENCE.
Prill, A sentence is composed of —
1 . The Principal parts,
2. The Adjuncts.
Def. 20. The principal parts of a sentence, are those words which are necessary to express the unqualified assertion.
Examples — God moves — He plants footsteps [and] rides.
Priih The principal parts of a sentence, are — The Subject, \ The Predicate, \ The Object.
Note.— Every sentence must have a subject and predicate, ex- pressed or understood.
Def* 21. The Subject of a sentence, is that, con- cerning which something is asserted.
Obs. It is always a noun, or a word, phrase, or sentence, used for a noun. It may be —
1. A Word — as, God exists — knowledge is power — man lives — science promotes happiness — birds fly — John* saws wood.
2. A Phrase — To be, contents his natural desire — to do good, is the duty of all men — his being a minister, prevented his rising to civil power.
" Compelling children to sit erect for a long time, is an evil prac- tice."— Cutter.
3. A Sentence — " That all men are created equal, is a self-evident truth."
Def. 22* The Predicate of a sentence, is the word or words that express what is affirmed of the sub- ject.
Obs. — It is always a verb, and may have added to it another
* In the example, " John saws wood," John is the subject, because that word is the name of the person concerning whom something is asserted.
SENTENCES ANALYSIS. 13
verb, a pronoun, a participle, an adjective, a noun, or a prepo- sition.
1. A Verb only — John saws* wood — God exists — birds fly — he rides — Ani- mals run.
2. A Verb and Verb — I shall go — I do remember.
3. A Verb and a Participle — John was injured — the house is being built — the legions were bought and sold — James is improving.
4. A Verb and an Adjective — They looked beautiful — he became poor — soldiers waxed valiant — John is sleepy.
4. A Verb and a Noun — God is love — Friend is treasure.
5. A Verb and a Preposition — " Its idle hopes are o'er" — " the rnounte- bank was laughed at.''
Obs. — The logical predicate of a sentence properly includes the object : but in a treatise on Grammar, it is proper to treat of the object as a distinct part of the sentence.
Sef. 23. The Object of a sentence, is the word or words on which the action, asserted by the pre- dicate, terminates.
Obs. — It is always a noun, or a word, phrase, or sentence, used for a noun. It may be —
1. A Word — John saws v:ood-f — I have seen him — feed the hungry — M He saith among the trumpets, Ha ! ha .'"
2. A Phrase — I regret his being absent — his being a minister prevented his rising to civil power.
3. A Sentence — And God said. Let there be light — The fool hath said in his heart, There is no God — I thought / heard a voice cry, Sleep no more.
Obs. 1. — A Prepositional Phrase always has an object of re- lation expressed or understood.
Examples — In a mysterious way — We are fond of walking — and of studying; grammar — Boys love to skate — "We love to please our parents.
Obs. 2. — When the object of relation is a transitive verb or a participle, it commonly has an object of an action.
Examples — We love to please our parents — We are fond of studying grammar.
Obs. 3.— A Participial Phrase has an object of an action, when the participle is transitive.
Examples — Scaling yonder peak — Mr. Hammond, having acquired a fortune, has retired from business.
* " Saws" is the grammatical predicate of i: John," because that word denotes the act of John. " Saws wood" is the logical predicate, be- cause those two words express the complete proposition,
f In the example, i: John saws wood," wood is the object of saws, be- cause that word is the name of the thing on which the action expressed by " saws" terminates.
14 PART I.— SENTENCES — -ANALYSIS.
EXAMPLES OF SENTENCES. Animals run.
C ANIMALS ^V" RUN. ^)
Quest Concerning what is something here declared ?
Ans. Something is declared concerning " animals."
Q. What is said of " animals P}
4, They " run."
Q. Those two words thus placed form what ?
A. A sentence — for it is u an assemblage of words, so arranged as to assert a fact."
" Animals run J1
Q. In this sentence, for what is the word " animals" used ?
A. It is used to tell what " run."
Q. For what is the word " run" used ?
A. To tell what u animals" do.
" Animals run."
" Every sentence must have a Subject and a Predicate."
Q. In this sentence what is the Subject ?
A. " Animals" — for it is the name of the things " concerning which something is asserted."
Q. What is the Predicate ?
A. " Run" — because it is the word that " expresses what is affirmed of the subject."
Let the pupil give an exposition of the following additional Examples.
Waters are running.
Mary is reading.
Winter has come.
Resources are developed.
Corn is harvested.
Wheat has been sown.
Mountains have been elevated. Lessons should have been studied. Recitations could have been omitted. He might have been respected.
Rem. — In the last example, the four words, "might have been re- spected," constitute the Predicate of " he."
Birds fly. Fishes swim. Horses gallop. Lightnings flash. Thunders roll. Girls sing. Boys play.
SENTENCES ANALYSIS. 15
John is sleepy. 2.
(~ JOHN "yCj^ SLEEPY. ^)
A Sentence — because it is " an assemblage of words, so ar- ranged as to assert a fact."
ANALYSIS.
u John" is the subject — for it is the name of the person " con- cerning whom something is asserted."
u Is sleepy" is the predicate — for these two words " express what is affirmed of the subject."
Rem. — In a limited sense, a verb may be said to qualify or describe its subject.
Examples — John sleeps.
Here "sleeps" describes a condition of " John."
John is sleeping.
Here "is sleeping" asserts a condition of "John."
John is sleepy. In this sentence, " is sleepy" asserts a condition as definitely as do the words, " is sleeping .*" and the genius of the language requires the word " sleeping" to be added to the verb " is," in order to express the fact intended; so the other fact concerning "John" requires the word " sleepy" to be added to the verb " is." The sentence is not, sleeping John is — i. e. exists ; nor is the other, sleepy John is — i. e. exists ; but " John is sleeping" and " John is sleepy." " Sleeping" is a participle, in predication with " is." " Sleepy" is an adjective, in predication with " is"
gy* Let the Pupil, in like manner, construe and place in Diagrams the following additional
Examples.
Velvet feels smooth.
William is diligent. James was weary. Flowers are beautiful. Mountains are elevated.
Robert has become poor. I felt languid. Soldiers waxed valiant.
" His palsied hand wax'd strong." — Wilson. " All earth-born cares are wrong." — Anon. " The war is actually begun." — Henry. " The rolling year is full of thee." " The very streams look languid from afar." " The sun looked bright, the morning after." — Sterne. " Vanity often renders man contemptible." " When his weak hand grew palsied, and his eye Dark with the mists of age, [it was his time to die.]' — Bryant.
16 PART I.— SENTENCES ANALYSIS.
God is Love.
3.
(^ GOD y I S LOYE, ")
A Sentence, See Definition 6.
ANALYSIS.
" God," the Subject, See Definition 21.
" Is Love," the Predicate* - - See Definition 22.
Other Examples.
Ye are benefactors.
We are friends.
Clouds are vapor.
Homer and Henry are students.
u We are slaves." " Man is miracle." Thou art Peter. Quadrupeds are beasts.
ADJUNCTS.
Fern. — If I say, Students deserve approbation, 1 make an "unqualified assertion" — applicable to all students, and to the approbation of all per- sons. But if I say, Diligent students deserve the approbation of their teacher y I speak only of a particular class of students — and of approbation, as limited to a particular source; for the word " student" is limited by the word " diligent;" and the word " approbation" by the word " the" and by the phrase "of their teacher ." These words and phrases are necessary, not to make the sentence, but to perfect the sense ; they are joined to other words, and are therefore called adjuncts.
Deft 24. An Adjunct is a word, phrase, or sen- tence, used to qualify or define another word, phrase, or sentence.
1. Word — " We were walking homeward" Whither?
2. Phrase — " We were walking toward home" Whither %
3. Sentence — " They kneeled before they fought" When ? Obs. — Some adjuncts are used to qualify the principal parts
of a sentence, others to qualify other adjuncts. Hence, Adjuncts are Primary and Secondary.
Dcf. 25c A Primary Adjunct is used to qualify one of the principal parts of a sentence.
* God is the name of a being — Love is a name of an attribute of that being. " Is Love," expresses a fact concerning God ; and that fact cannot well be expressed without these two words thus combined.
SENTENCES ANALYSIS.
17
Examples — The boy studies diligently — You have come late — " Our national resources" — Joh?i1s book is lost.
Deft 26. A Secondary Adjunct is used to qua- lify another adjunct.
Examples — The boy studies very diligently — You have come too late.
Obs. — Adjuncts are adjectives or adverbs, or they are phrases and sentences used adjectively or adverbially.
SENTENCES WITH THEIR ADJUNCTS.
" Our national resources are developed by an earnest
culture of the arts of peace"
(4-)
ARE DEVELOPE
D
CULTURE \^AN^ EARNEST J
X \
ARTS J \\
\T\the )\\ \ "*"'"-0\\
- ,"<~irfe^
Quest. Concerning what is an assertion here made ? Ans. Concerning u resources?''
What is asserted of " resources ?" A, Resources " are developed."
What resources are developed ? A. " National11 resources.
What national resources ? A. u Our" national resources.
How are our national resources developed? A. u By an earnest culture of the arts of peace"
By what culture ? A. By " earnest" culture.
What earnest culture ? A. " An" earnest culture.
What special culture ? A. Culture " of the arts of peace"
Of what arts 7 A. " The" arts " of peace."
18 FART I. SENTENCES ANALYSIS.
In the above sentence what is the
use of " Our %" Ans. To define some particular national
resources. " "national?"- - - - A. To tell what resources. " " resources V - - - A. et what are developed. " " are developed 1" = - A. " what is said of resources. " " bv an earnest culture > . ,, i , 7 *
of the arts of peace V \A' how reso*rces are developed.
" "an?" A. " what earnest culture,
" " earnest ?"---- a. " what culture.
" " of the arts of peace 7" A " what species of culture.
" "the?" 4. " what arte.
" "of peace?"- - - - A. " what species of arts. Quest. "What are the principal parts of this sentence ? Ans. " Resources are developed" — -they " express the unqualified assertion."
What is the Subject ? A. " Resources" — it is the name of that, " concerning which something is affirmed." What is the Predicate ? A. " Are developed" — they " express what is affirmed of the subject."
What are the Adjuncts of " resources ?" A. " Our" and " national"
What are the Adjuncts of " are developed 7" A. The complex phrase, " by an earnest culture of the arts of peace."
What are the Adjuncts of " culture ?" A. The words, " an" and " earnest" and the phrase, " of the arts of peace."
What are the Adjuncts of " arts ?" A. The word, " the" and the phrase, " of peace"
DIAGRAMS,
Priih The office of a word in a sentence, deter- mines its position in the diagram, according1 to the following*
GENERAL RULES.
Rule 1. The principal parts of a sentence are placed upper- most, and on the same horizontal line ; as 1, 2, 3.
2. The Subject of a sentence takes the first place ; as 1.
3. The Predicate is placed to the right of the subject — attached; as 2 — 7 — 11 — 26
4. The Object is placed to the right of the predicate ; as 3. The object of a phrase is placed to the right of the word
which introduces the phrase ; as 22 to the right of 2 1 .
5. A word, phrase, or sentence, is placed beneath the word which it qualifies ; as 4 and 5 qualify 1, — (25, 26, x) qualify 22.
6. A word used to introduce a phrase, is- placed beneath the word which the phrase qualifies — having its object to the right
DIAGRAMS. 19
and connecting both; as 15 connecting 12 and 16 — 21 connect- ing 3 and 22.
7. A word used only to connect, is placed between the two words connected ; as 10 between 7 and 11 ; and a word used to introduce a sentence, is placed above the predicate of the sen- tence, and attached to it by a line ; as 0 above 2.
8. A word relating back to another word, is attached to the antecedent by a line ; as 6 attached to 1, and x to 22.
(5)
G_S
idi
k=|j> OEDCjlD
Explanation of the preceding Diagram.
0 — Introduces a sentence, Kule 7.
£> . . j C 1— Subject, " 2.
Pnncf* Z? 2-Predieate of 1, "3.
parts. ^3_objectof2. - "4. 4 and 5 individually, and 6 to 19 inclusive,
collectively, qualify or define 1, - - "5.
6 — Subject of 7 and 11, and relates to 1, - "2 and 8.
7— Predicate of 6. "3.
8 and 9— Modify 7, "5.
10— Connects 7 and 11, "7.
1 l_Predicate of 6, " 3.
12— Object of 11, "4.
13,14,(15, 16, 17, 18, 19)— Qualify or define 12, " 5.
20 and (21, 22, 23, 24)— Qualify or define 3, " 5.
21 — Shows a relation of 3 and 22, - - - " 6.
22— Object of 21, "4.
23, 24, (25, 26, x)— Qualify or define 22, - " 5.
25— Subject of 26 "2.
26— Predicate of 25, "3.
x — Object (understood) of 26 and relating
to 22, « 4 and 8.
20 PART I. SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES.
Rem* — -Some sentences assert the being, condition, or state, of a person or thing — or an action which does not terminate on an object. Others assert an action which terminates on an object.
Some sentences assert but one fact ; others, more. Some assert an in- dependent, or a principal proposition; others, a secondary, or qualifying proposition. Hence,
Prin» Sentences are distinguished as— Intransitive or Transitive, Simple or Compound,
Principal or Auxiliary, Deft 27# An Intransitive Sentence asserts being", condition, or state— or an act which does not ter- minate on an object.
Examples— I am— William sleeps — James is weary — Ani- mals run — Cora sings sweetly — God is Love.
Obs.— An Intransitive Sentence contains one or more sub- jects and predicates, but no object.
Def. 28» A Transitive Sentence asserts an act which terminates on an object.
Examples — -Birds built nests— Bring flowers — John and Den- nis saw wood — Jane studies Grammar and Botany — <c The king of shadows loves a shining mark."
Obs. — A Transitive Sentence has at least one subject, one predicate, and one object.
Deft 29. A Simple Sentence asserts but one proposition.
Obs. — It asserts but one fact concerning one person or thing. Hence, it contains but one subject, and one predicate, and (if transitive) one object.
Examples — Birds fly — John is studious— Resources are developed.
Note. — Two or more simple sentences, distinct in grammatical con- struction, may have a logical connection. Such a collection of sentences is properly called a Period.
" Wheat grows in the field — and men reap it."
" A friend exaggerates a man's virtues — an enemy his crimes."
Deft 30. A Compound Sentence asserts two or more propositions.
SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION. 21
Obs. — It asserts two or more facts concerning one or more persons or things.
As, Henry studies and recites grammar.
Or it asserts one or more facts concerning two or more per- sons or things.
As, Homer and Henry study grammar.
Or it asserts one act of one person or thing which terminates on two or more objects.
As, Henry studies grammar and arithmetic.
Hence, a compound sentence contains two or more subjects, or predicates, or objects.
Def. 30, a. — The parts of a compound sentence are called clauses.
Obs. — The compound clauses may be —
-^ 1. The subjects — As, Homer and Henry study _J grammar, i 2. The predicates — Henry studies and recites
— ^- -^ ^ grammar.
I X J n I 3. The objects — Henry studies grammar and
**** -* arithmetic.
Rem.— Sentences which have compound predicates, often have objects applicable to only a part of them. Hence,
Def. 30, b. — A compound sentence having one or more transitive, and one or more intransitive clauses, is a Mixed Sentence.
(7.)
~Z~J* Examples — Time slept on flowers, and lent his glass
to Hope.
C~ "^ nv/i ,j* The stars will then lift up their heads and rejoice.
Note. — A compound sentence is not " a union of two or more simple sentences." :< Wheat grows in the field, and men reap it." Here are two simple sentences, independent of each other, so far as the grammati- cal construction of them is concerned. The latter sentence is simply added to the former — and its proximity alone determines the word for which the word " iV is substituted.
Nor is a compound sentence always " made up of parts of two or more simple sentences." Oxygen and Hydrogen form water. We may not say— Oxygen forms water and Hydrogen forms water ; but as the two things, Oxygen and Hydrogen, must be joined chemically before they can form water, so the two words, " Oxygen" and u Hydrogen," must be joined in construction, before the " subject of the sentence" is complete.
A compound sentence has at least one member of one of the principal parts common to two or more members of another of the principal parts, [See Examples above.]
&?u
22 PART I. SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION.
Deft 81 • A Principal Sentence asserts an inde- pendent or principal proposition : as,
(8.) j ^ " A mortal disease was upon her vitals."
Deft 32t An Auxiliary Sentence expresses a qualifying- assertion : as,
(9.)
" A mortal disease was upon her vitals, before Ccesar had passed the Rubicon."
Note. — An auxiliary sentence is an adjunct of a sentence, phrase, or word, going before in construction ; or it is used as a substitute for a noun. Hence,
Print Auxiliary sentences are distinguished as
Substantive, Adjective, and Adverbial. Def. 32, a. — A Substantive Sentence is used as the subject or object of a verb: as,
(10.)
" That good men sometimes commit faults can-
not be denied."
Much learning shows how little mortals know.'
Note. — A sentence is sometimes used independently in con- struction, although explanatory of another : as,
" It echoed his text, Take heed how ye hear."
Def. 32, b. — An Adjective Sentence is used to qualify a noun or pronoun : as, (11.)
I ""A-A^f u jje ■ffafi getteth wisdom, ioveth his own soul."
CZDCZZXZZ)
Def. 32, e. — An Adverbial Sentence is used to modify the sig- nification of a Verb, Adjective, or Adverb : as, (12.)
T >
Where wealth and freedom reign, contentment fails."
S=3 "
SENTENCES — CLASSIFICATION ANALYSIS. 23
Def. S3# A principal sentence, ivith its auxiliary sentences, constitutes a Complex sentence.
'• He hears the thunder ere the tempest lowers." [See Examples attached t© Diagrams 9, 10, 11, and 12.]
1. " The king of sliadows loves a shining mark.''1
(13.)
X
KING I LOVES Y MARK
A simple sentence — transitive, - - - - See defs. 28 and 29.
ANALYSIS.
t, - - 7 C King — Subject, - - -
Parts- ) Mark-Object, - - -
, ,. A Ofshadows | AdJuncts 0f *"« " Adjuncts. < l x ;
qi • • > Adjuncts of mar k, " • Let the construction of this sentence be written on the black-board.
|
a |
a |
21. |
|
it |
it |
22. |
|
a |
u |
23. |
|
it |
u |
24. |
|
u |
24. |
Other Examples applicable to the same Diagram.
2. The science of Geology illustrates many astonishing facts. §gp Let the Analysis of this sentence be written on the black-board.
Construction.
Words. Use. Class. Def.
The, - - - limits " science,"
Science, - - agent of the action expressed by " illustrates."
Of, - - - - expresses a relation of" science" and " geology.'
Geology, - - object of the relation expressed by " of."
Illustrates, - expresses the action performed by " science."
Many, - - limits " facts." Astonishing, qualifies " facts."
Facts, - - - object of the action expressed by " illustrates."
3. A love for study secures our intellectual improvement.
4. The habit of intemperance produces much lasting misery.
5. A desire for improvement should possess all our hearts.
6. The use of tobacco degrades many good men.
7. A house on fire presents a melancholy spectacle.
8. A man of refinement will adopt no disgusting habit. jy Let each pupil make a sentence adapted to the above diagram.
|
Adj, Noun, |
*9. 7. |
|
Prep, Noun, |
12. 7. |
|
Verb. |
10. |
|
Adj, Adj, Noun, |
9. 9. 7. |
24 PART I. SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION.
1. "In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth"
C\/*~* ST heaven J
GOD Y CREATED ) ^J£^J (fiTf ^/V__^ ^/ EARTH- )
JL
BEGINNING
THE
A compound sentence — transitive, Def.*
P
ANALYSIS.
r God— Subject, "
Created — Predicate, "
a
>rincjpal\ Heayen
*****' I [and] \ Objects, «
[Earth ) In the beginning — Adjunct of created, - - " The — Adjunct of heaven, S
The — Adjunct of earth,
Construction,
Words. Use. Class. Def. In, - - - expresses a relation of " created" and " beginning," Prep., 12.
The, - - limits " beginning," Adj., 9.
Beginning, object of relation expressed by "in," - - - - Noun, 7.
God, - - agent of the action expressed by " created," - - Noun, 7.
Created, - expresses the action performed by " God," - - Verb, 10.
The, - - limits " heaven," Adj., 9.
Heaven, - object of action expressed by " created," - - - Noun. 7.
And, - - connects " heaven" and " earth," ------ Conj. 13.
The, - - limits " earth," Adj., 9.
Earth, - object of action expressed by " created," - - - Noun, 7.
2. He educated his daughter and his son, at great expense.
3. Students require of the teacher, much instruction and some patience.
4. We, at all times, seek our honor and our happiness.
5. God, in the creation, has displayed his wisdom and his power.
6. Men gather the tares and the wheat, with equal care.
7. John loves his study and his play, with equal attachment.
k Let the pupil repeat these definitions.
SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION ANALYSIS. 25
" The Lord uplifts his awful hand And chains you to the shore"
(15.)
H A N D \
H ISJ^A W F U L J
Y O U 3
SHORE. ")
Compound sentence — transitive.
ANALYSIS.
'Lord — Subject of " uplifts1' and " chains." Uplifts ^ Principal j [And] > Predicates of " Lord." parts. | Chains )
Hand— Object of " uplifts." You — Object of " chains." "The— Adjunct of " Lord."
His )
Adjuncts. < / , | j Adjuncts of " hand."
L To the shore — Adjunct of " chains."
Other examples ) in which the Principal Parts are the same. Let the pupil place in diagrams, the following sentences : " He heard the king's command^ And saw that writing's truth,''1 " For misery stole me at my birth, And cast me helpless on the wild." u Then weave the chaplet of flowers and strew the beauties »f nature about the grave."
u They fulfilled the great law of labor in the letter, but broke t in the spirit."
" That the page unfolds And spreads us to the gaze of God and men." " Now twilight lets her curtain down.
And pins it with a star." u He marks, and in heaven's register enrolls, The rise and progress of each option there." Remark. — The last example differs from the others. Let the pupil tell therein.
Principal parts.
26 PART. I. SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION.
Temperance and frugality promote healthy and secure
happiness.
(16,)
(TEMPERANCE^ PROMOTE jf HEALTH j
(k) (U)
f FRUGALITY J SECURE jHAPPINESsT)
A compound sentence — transitive.
ANALYSIS.
Temperance ^
[and] > Subjects of " promote" and K secure." Frugality S l m i pre(jjca^es 0f u temperance" and v fru-
q L J ( gality." secure ) & J
Health — Object of " promote."
_ Happiness — Object of u secure."
Note. — If I say — " Temperance promotes health and frugality secures hap- piness" I make two distinct sentences — each " simple." But the " and'' may be taken from between " temperance" and " frugality," and placed between " health" and " happiness," and it remains a compound sen- tence. It will then read thus — " Temperance promotes, and frugality secures, health and happiness ;" — and is thus construed:
Temperance — Subject of " promotes." Promotes — Predicate of '• temperance." Frugality — Subject of " secures." Secures — Predicate of " frugality." Health ~)
[and] > Objects of u secures" and " promotes."
Happiness )
" There youth and beauty tread the choral ring, And shout their raptures to the cloudless skies."
" Prayer only, and the penitential tear, Can call her smiling down and fix her here." — Cowper.
Note to the Teacher. — The Author suggests that the Teacher give to each Pupil, a sentence to be placed in Diagram, and presented for inspection and criticism, at a subsequent re- citation. It is believed that this practice, repeated every day, will be an agreeable and profitable exercise.
SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION ANALYSIS. 27
c^xz= y "N « Wisdom and virtue elevate and ennoble a c±±Dat±> ' man."
GwJ?~""^V V' The toils and cares of life torment the b ^^k-Aztti/ restless mind."*
( firf ) " -Passi°n degrades and brutalizes man."f
* A compound sentence — transitive ; having two subjects, one pre- dicate, and one object.
Principal
ANALYSIS.
T Toils )
[and] > Subjects of " torment." -v Cares )
pans. Torment— Predicate of u toils [and] cares." Mind— Object of " torment."
0f ,® I Adjuncts of " toils and cares."
Adjuncts. J T/ e K
-p1^6 i Adjuncts of " mind." Kestless ) J
t A compound sentence — transitive — having one subject, two predicates, and one object.
ANALYSIS.
Passion — Subject of " degrades and brutalizes." Degrades )
[and] > Predicates of " Passion." Brutalizes ) Man — Object of u degrades and brutalizes."
Principal parts.
Miscellaneous Examples, having their Principal Parts adapted to Diagram a, b, or c, Fig. 17. " Pride and envy accompany and strengthen each other." " Illuminated Reason and regulated Liberty shall once more exhibit man in the image of his Maker."
u Here Art and Commerce, with auspicious reign, Once breathed sweet influence on the happy plain." " For Hopes too long delayed, And Feelings blasted or betrayed, Its fabled Bliss destroy." " Patience and perseverance will surmount or remove the most formidable difficulties."
28 PART I. SENTENCES CLASSIFI CATION.
" Then Strife and Faction rule the day, And Pride and Avarice throng the way ; Loose Revelry and Riot bold, In freighted streets their orgies hold."
" The hunter's trace and the dark encampments started the wild beasts from their lairs." " Thy praise the widow's sighs, and orphan's tears embalm." " Their names, their years, spelled by the unlettered muse. The place of fame and elegy supply." — Grey.
" Hence, every state, to one loved blessing prone, Conforms and models life to that alone." " Hope, like a cordial, innocent though strong, Man's heart at once inspirits and serenes." — Young. u For which we shunned and hated thee before." " By thus acting, we cherish and improve both." " When mighty Alfred's piercing soul Pervades and regulates the whole." " Knowledge reaches, or may reach, every home." " Whose potent arm perpetuates existence or destroys." Hill and valley echo back their songs and alleluias. a He tossed not high his ready cap in air, Nor lifted up his voice in servile shouts, At sight of that great ruffian." (18.) ^
Unnumbered systems, suns, and ivorlds, unite to worship thee.
A compound sentence — intransitive ; containing three subjects and one predicate.
Principal parts.
ANALYSIS.
Systems,"
Subjects of" unite."
Suns, [and] Worlds,
_ Unite — Predicate of " systems, suns, and worlds." C Unnumbered — Adjunct of " systems, suns, and Adjuncts. < worlds."
(To worship thee — Adjunct of "unite." u The lame, the blind, and the aged repose in hospitals."
SENTENCES — CLASSIFICATION ANALYSIS. 29
" They kneeled before they fought."
(19.)
(* THEY VTnEeTe^)
(^BEFORlT)
(^ THEY ^FOUGHT.^) Complex sentence. — Def. 33.
Adjunct \ Th r Adjunct f « kneeled."
sentence. * J l J
ANALYSIS.
Pri?icipal < They — Subject of " kneeled." sentence. ( Kneeled — Predicate of " they.5
VAdji v Fought S Before — Introduces a qualifying sentence. They— Subject of " fought." Fought— Predicate of u they." Let each pupil make a sentence for the above diagram. (20.)
pz^zrr He hears the thunder ere the tempest
lowers.77
A complex sentence. — Def. 33.
ANALYSTS.
p . . 7 ( He — Subject of " hears."
2 I Hears— Predicate ^ " he." *a ^ Thunder — Object of " hears."
Ad'uncts \ The— AdJunct of " thunder."
J ' \ Ere the tempest lowers — Adjunct of " hears." f Ere— Introduces a qualifying sentence. Auxiliary J Tempest — Subject of " lowers." sentence. | Lowers — Predicate of " tempest." I^The — Adjunct of " tempest."
Examples applicable to Diagram (19) or (20), with the addition
of Adjuncts. While they triumph, they expire. While we tarried, they slept. If we fail, you perish.
30 PART I. SENTENCES— ANALYSIS.
" And when its yellow lustre smiled. O'er mountains yet untrod, Each mother held aloft her child, To bless the bow of God."
" We range us in line As the voice of the trumpet is calling." " The virtue still adorns our age,
Though the chief actor died upon the stage." u He spread an open countenance, where smiles
The fair effulgence of an open heart." " It will, through latest time, enrich your race, When grossest wealth shall moulder into dust." " Heaves my heart with strong emotion,
While I go far hence to dwell." — Smith. " Pray I cannot, though inclination Be as sharp as 'twill."
" Too low they build : who build beneath the stars"
Young.
(21.)
|
THEY ^^ BUILD^ |
|
|
V L O W J |
|
|
\_ TOO y |
|
|
WHO ^XTB U I L D |
|
|
EEN-1 \eath/- STARS. ^) ^_ THE _J |
A complex sentence — both simple and intransitive,
ANALYSIS.
Principal ( They — Subject of " build." parts. \ Build — Predicate of " they." C Low — Adjunct of " build."
Adjuncts. < Too — Adjunct of " low."
( Who build beneath the stars — Adjunct of " they." [Principal ( Who — Subject of " build."
Auxiliary \ parts. \ Build — Predicate of " who."
sentence. 1 jr , l Beneath stars — Adjunct of " build." ^ajuncts. j The_Adjunct of u stars a
SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION ANALYSTS. 3 1
(22.)
( THEY YUNDERTAKE^" CAUSE ^
j \r H EJl~N 0 B LEST j
(that T fight ") : _ v^ — ~ --v-k
I I ( MANKIND X CAN HAVE J[XJ
" jBm£ ^6y that fight for freedom, undertake The noblest cause mankind can have at stake.7''
A complex sentence.
ANALYSIS.
p #. . j C They — Subject of " undertake." v\ < Undertake — Predicate of c; they." ' Cause — Object of " undertake." " That fight for freedom — Adjunct of " they."
Adjuncts. J llHhst ) AfcCstS».°f
L[that] mankind can have at stake )
Construction.
But, introduces an additional sentence, ------- Conj.
They, agent of action expressed by " undertake," - - - Pron.
That, agent of action expressed by " fight," Pron.
Fight, expresses the action performed by " that," - - - - Verb.
For, expresses a relation of "fight" and "freedom," - - Prep.
Freedom, object of relation expressed by " for," Noun.
Undertake, expresses the action of " they," ------- Verb.
The, limits " cause," --- _._-_ Adj.
Noblest, qualifies " cause," Adj.
Cause, object of the action expressed by " undertake," - - Noun.
X, [that], object of " can have" — referring to " cause," - - - Pron.
Mankind, agent of action expressed by " can have," - - - - Noun.
Can have, expresses an action of " mankind," Verb.
At, expresses a relation of " can have " and " stake," - Prep.
Stake, object of relation expressed by " at," ------ Noun.
§5^* Let each pupil make a sentence for the above diagram.
And students who love to study, merit the highest honors which teachers can give them.
Variations of Adjuncts.
u Serious politeness is the best shield [ ] a young lady can have, and it is a shield [ ] you may need in a tete-a-tete with a youthful instructor. This sort of defence protects you, without offending others." — Young Ladies1 Friend.
32
PART I. SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION.
" Our proper bliss depends on what [that which] we
blame"
(23.)
( BLIS S~Xd E p"e N D S )
y ourJI proper ; Ion) "
7 toi]
Q W E ^(BLAME,
. . AT WH . . .
A Complex sentence — the Auxiliary qualifies a phrase.
ANALYSIS.
Bliss — Subject of " depends." Depends — Predicate of " bliss.'"
-o < Adjuncts of "bliss."
Proper ( J
On what we blame — Adjunct of " depends."
On — Expresses a relation of " depends" and " what."
ttti , $ [That] — Object of relation expressed by " on."
I [Which] — Object of action expressed by " blame."
We — Subject of " blame."
Blame — Predicate of " we."
Let sentences be made for the above diagrams.
"God never meant, that man should scale the heavens By strides of human wisdom.7* — Cowper.
(2*.)
GOD
MEANT
^\
¥
c
MAN
30
m
SHOULD SCALE
x
STRIDES
[EAVEN S )
V T H E J
[° Fj WISDOM. "])
V H U M A n]
A complex sentence — the Auxiliary the logical object of the Principal. ' Let the Analysis of this sentence be written on the black-board.
SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION ANALYSIS. 33
" Time slept on flowers and lent his glass to hope.'1
Sigourney.
(25.)
SLEPT }
TIME (^O^/fLOWET?)
LENT X^° L A S S 3
1™F
parts.
HOPE.) ^1 mixed sentence. — Def. 30, Z>.
ANALYSIS.
"Time— Subject of " slept" and " lent."
-PfLTICVDOjl v
A s [and] > Predicates of " time." Lent )
Glass— Object of " lent." C On flowers — Adjunct of " slept." Adjuncts. < His — Adjunct of ': glass."
( To hope — Adjunct of " lent."
Let the pupil apply the following sentences to the same diagram.
2. We sigh for change, and spend our lives for nought.
3. We shall pass from earth, and yield our homes to others.
4. William goes to school, and pursues his studies with dili- gence.
5. James stays at home, and spends his time at play.
6. Fruits ripen in autumn, and yield us rich repasts.
7. Eagles build their nests on high, and watch for prey.
8. Larks sing at dawn, and afford us much delight.
Vary the Adjuncts for the following. "For spring shall return and a lover bestow." — Beattie. u But the black blast blows hard, And puffs them wide of hope." u Wreaths of smoke ascend through the trees, and betray the half hidden cottage."
u Its little joys go out, one by one,
And leave poor man, at length, in perfect night." " In silence majestic they twinkle on high,
And draw admiration from every eye." u The waves mount up and wash the face of heaven."
34 PART I. SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION.
PW "For the angel of death spread his icings
on the blast , ^tES^jba—, ^ind breathed in the face of the foe c-x-^ as he passed"
A mixed sentence — complex.— Dei. 30, b. and 33.
ANALYSIS.
'Angel — Subject of " spread and " breathed."
Spread } [and] > Predicates of " angel."
Breathed ) w Wings — Object of " spread."
r Of death j Adjuncts of "angel." His — Adjunct of " wings." On the blast — Adjunct of " spread." In the face of the foe > Ad f „ breathed „
^As he passed ) J
a -j- i As — Introduces an auxiliary sentence. y < He — Subject of " passed." £ Passed — Predicate of " he."
Principal parts.
Adjuncts. <
Let the principal parts of the same diagram be written on the black-board, and vary the adjuncts to the following sentences.
" He plants his footsteps in the sea, And rides upon the storm."
The ravished eye casts its glance around on every side, and is never satisfied with gazing.
" That I might explore the records of remote ages, and be- come familiar with the learning and literature of other times."
Taylor, " But now a wave, high rising o'er the deep, Lifts its dire crest — and, like a vengeful fiend, Comes as a mountain on." " He leaps enclosures, bounds into the world." — Young. " By that dread name, we wave the sword on high.
And swear for her to live — with her to die." u The moon in the east, now her crescent displays, And adds to the grandeur of night."
SENTENCES CLASSIFICATION ANALYSIS. 35
" And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill"
(27.)
DEAD LY^
WAXED CZMT
CHILL.)
Compound sentence — intransitive.
ANALYSIS.
Principal ( Eyes — Subject of •' waxed deadly [and] chill." parts. ( Waxed deadly [and] chill — Predicate of " eyes."
Adjuncts. < ^n Mi t ^ Adjuncts of "eyes."
J I <Jt the sleepers )
Construction.
And, introduces an additional sentence, Conj., 13.
The, limits " eyes," Adj., 9.
Eyes, agent of " waxed deadly [and] chill," Noun, 7.
Of, expresses relation of " eyes " [and] " sleepers," - - Prep., 12.
The, limits " sleepers," - - Adj., 9.
Sleepers, object of relation expressed by " of," Noun, 7.
Waxed, expresses (with "deadly [and] chill") what is af- firmed of " eyes," Verb, 10.
Deadly, used in predication with waxed, Adj., 9.
And, connects " deadly " [and] " chill," Conj. 13.
Chill, used in predication with waxed, ------- Adj., 9.
Additional Examples. " Age is dark and unlovely. "—Ossian. u Now, therefore, be not grieved nor angry with yourselves."
" Bloodless are these limbs and cold." — Byron. " How finely diversified, and how multiplied into many thou- sand distinct exercises, is the attention of God." — Chalmers. " I am perplexed and confounded." " They became agitated and restless."
" The wares of the merchant are spread abroad in the shops, or stored in the high-piled warehouses."
u Rude am I in speech, and little blest
With the set phrase of peace." " What bark is plunging 'mid the billowy strife, And dashing madly on to fearful doom."
36 PART I. SENTENCES CLASISFICATION.
Diagrams of the Principal Farts of Simple, Compound, and Complex Sentences.
SIMPLE SENTENCES.
( subject Ypredicate^ lntransitive-\i^mg one Subject, one v 'V / Predicate.
/- „ TT nrwm -v" \/ n Transitive — having one
C subject XPREDiCATi)CoBJECT ) Subject, one Predkate,
one Object. COMPOUND SENTENCES.
C S: rr—zzz^~ "^ Intransitive — two Subjects, one Predicate.
™\ tZZZOZZzz^ Intransitive — one Subject, two Predicates.
ECZ_J£
Z) Transitive — one Subject, two Predicates, ZD two Objects.
p( r — ID. — -„ ZK A Transitive— two Subjects, two Predicates,
c ■ X k J one Object.
G^= =^ a y g j Transitive — two Subjects, two Predicates,
C X- -X_____3 two Objects.
jjC — ~ — Zy~~ "~\ -tr— ^ T'ansitive — two Subjects, one Predicate.
C JK. /C J two Objects.
j c n f y ^ Transitive — two Subjects, one Predicate,
c .-> ^- -J one Object.
J C~ ~~~\ q T *) Transitive — one Subject, two Predicates,
one Object. Transitive — one Subject, one Predicate, two Objects.
MIXED SENTENCES.
k (^ J— ^ — x "^ First Clause, Intransitive ; Second, Transitive, ■***■ v j ^^-^
j ■
3 First Clause, Transitive ; Second, Intransitive.
COMPLEX SENTENCES.
~-^ The Auxiliary sentence Substantive Sub- _J ject of the Principal sentence.
The Auxiliary sentence Substantive Ob- ject of the Principal sentence.
"} Principal sentence, Simple, Intransitive.
> Auxiliary sentence, Simple, Transitive, Ad- verbial.
SENTENCES EXAMPLES. 37
Principal sentence, Simple, Transitive. 5 Auxiliary sentence, Simple, Transitive, Adjective.
EXAMPLES OF COMPLEX SENTENCES.
^p^ Rem. — Let the pupil write the Diagram for each sentence on the black- board and insert the words in the proper places.
r „ , xn.__> Blessed are the poor in spirit, c_ . xzzS^> for theirs is the kingdom of heaven.
s:
Blessed are they that mourn,
for they shall be comforted. ^*. ■■ •> Blessed are the meek,
for they shall inherit the earth.
<=>==>
^sS
Blessed are they which do hunger and thirst
after righteousness, for they shall be filled.
Blessed are the pure in heart,
for they shall see God.
Blessed is the man that endureth temptation,
for, when he is tried,
he shall receive the crown of life, which the Lord hath promised to them that love him.
OTHER EXAMPLES, IN WHICH THE AUXILIARY SENTENCE IS SUBSTANTIVE.
" That I have taken this old marts daughter, is most true." " As they sat down, one said to his friend at his right, i We shall soon see who is who.'' "
" We bustle up with unsuccessful speed, And in the saddest part, cry — i Droll indeed?" " Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian."
" A celebrated writer says — £ Take care of the minutes and the hours will take care of themselves.' "
AUXILIARY SENTENCE ADJECTIVE.
" There is something in their hearts which passes speech" " I heard the complaints of the laborers who had reaped down
38 SENTENCES — EXAMPLES.
his fields, and the cries of the poor whose covering he had taken away."
"The difference in the happiness which is received or bestowed by the man who guards his temper, and that by the man who does not, is immense."
AUXILIARY SENTENCE ADVERBIAL.
And, as I passed along, I heard the complaints of the labor- ers.
" The sweet remembrance of the just,
Shall flourish when he sleeps in dust." " But when he caught the measure wild, The old man raised his head, and smiled." "And when [he was] listening to this, he would often clasp his hands in ecstasy of delight."
" Their advancement in life and in education was such that each ought to have been a gentleman."
" As they sat down, one said to his friend on his right, c We • shall soon see who is who.' "
" If you would know the deeds of him who chews, Bntee, the house of God, and see the pews."
Adams. PROMISCUOUS EXAMPLES.
Virtue secures happiness.
" Darkness is o'er the land — For lo ! a death-flag streams upon the breeze — The Hero hath departed !" " Nay, let us weep. Our grief hath need of tears —
Tears should embalm the dead.
#########
Throned in a nation's love he sunk to sleep, And so awoke in heaven." — Mrs. Stevens. " The perfect world, by Adam trod,
Was the first temple — built by God :
His fiat laid the corner-stone,
And heaved its pillars one by one. " He hung its starry roof on high —
The broad, illimitable sky ;
He spread its pavement green and bright,
And curtained it with morning light."
SENTENCES EXAMPLES. 39
1. 0, I have loved, in youth's fair vernal morn,
To spread imagination's wildest wiog, The sober certainties of life to scorn,
And seek the visioned realms that poet's sing — Where Nature blushes in perennial spring,
Where streams of earthly joy exhaustless rise, Where Youth and Beauty tread the choral ring,
And shout their raptures to the cloudless skies, While every jovial hour on downy pinion flies.
2. But, ah ! those fairy scenes at once are fled,
Since stern Experience waved her iron wand, Broke the soft slumbers of my visioned head,
And bade me here of perfect bliss despond. And oft have I the painful lesson conned ;
When Disappointment mocked my wooing heart, Still of its own delusion weakly fond,
And from forbidden pleasures loth to part, Though shrinking oft beneath Correction's deepest smart.
3. And is there nought in mortal life, I cried,
Can sooth the sorrows of the laboring breast % No kind recess, where baffled hope may hide,
And weary Nature lull her woes to rest? 0 grant me, pitying Heaven, this last request! —
Since I must every loftier wish resign, Be my few days with peace and friendship blessed ;
Nor will I at my humble lot repine, Though neither wealth, nor fame, nor luxury be mine.
4. 0 give me yet, in some recluse abode,
Encircled with a faithful few, to dwell, Where power cannot oppress, nor care corrode,
Nor venomed tongues the tale of slander tell I 0 bear me to some solitary cell,
Beyond the reach of every human eye ! And let me bid a long and last farewell
To each alluring object 'neath the sky, And there in peace await my hour — in peace to die.
5. " Ah vain desire !n a still, small voice replied,
u No place, no circumstance can Peace impart : — She scorns the mansion of unvanquished Pride, Sweet inmate of a pure and humble heart : —
40 PART I. SENTENCES EXAMPLES.
Take then thy station — act thy proper part ; — A Savior's mercy seek, — his will perform :
His word has balm for sin's envenomed smart,
His love, diffused, thy shuddering breast shall warm
His power provide a shelter from the gathering storm."
6. 0 welcome hiding-place ! 0 refuge meet
For fainting pilgrims on this desert way ! 0 kind Conductor of these wandering feet,
Through snares and darkness, to the realms of day So did the Sun of righteousness display
His healing beams ; each gloomy cloud dispel : While on the parting mist, in colors gay,
Truth's cheering bow of precious promise fell, And Mercy's silver voice soft whispered — " All is well."
THE SCIENCE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
PART II.
Principle. The science of language embraces,
1. The structure and form of words, or,
ORTHOGRAPHY.* '
2. The classification and modification of words, or,
ETYMOLOGY.
3. The relation and mutual dependence of words, or,
SYNTAX.
4. The arrangement and utterance of words, or,
PROSODY.
CLASSIFICATION AND MODIFICATION OF WORDS.
Prill. Words are distinguished by their Forms and Uses.
I. THE FORMS OF WORDS.
Prin. By their forms, words are distinguished as
Radical or Derivative, | Simple or Compound. Def. 34. A word that does not derive its original from ano- ther word in the language, is a R.adical Word. Examples — Man — joy — time — act — form.
* For an epitome of Orthography, see Appendix, Note A.
42 PART II. ETYMOLOGY.
Def. 35. A word formed from a Radical, by prefixing or add- ing one or more letters to it, is a Derivative Word, Examples — Manly — enjoy — joyous — enact — active — conform.
Def. 36. A word that may be used separately from another word, is a Simple Word.
Examples — Man — money — board — stand — maker — ink. Def. 37. A word made of two or more words combined, is a Compound Word. Examples — Money-maker — ink-stand — black-board. Prin. Particles used in forming Derivative Words, are
Prefixes and Suffixes. Def. 38. One or more letters placed before a word, is a Prefix.
Examples — inform — conform — amend — bedew — unbind. Def. 39. One*or more letters added to a word, is a Suffix. Examples — Formi?ig — mended — dewy — active — joyous — manty. Prin. Prefixes and Suffixes are Simple or Compound.
Examples of Simple.
Prefixes. Suffixes.
extend — define — conform. — I brutoi — feeling — acted — amend — instruct — coZlect. | manly — harmom>e — wilful.
Compound.
coextend — unconform — I .brutality — feelingly — preinstmct — ra;oZlect. | manfully — harmoni^m^-.
Prefixes and Suffixes, affection — commotion — confutation — collective — information — counteracted — unwilling — defamation — preconcerted — unconformable — transubsXantiation.
Prin. The Radicals of Derivative Words are Separable or Inseparable.
Def. 40. A Separable Radical constitutes a perfect word without the aid of Prefixes or Suffixes.
Examples — Man — form — feel — brute — will — joy.
Def. 41. An Inseparable Radical is not used as a word in the language, without the aid of its prefix or suffix.
|
Examples — - |
pose |
feet |
fate |
led |
|
compose |
affect |
refute |
collect |
|
|
composition |
affected |
refutation |
collection |
Note. — For Derivation of Words and a list of Prefixes and Suffixes, see Appendix, Note B.
NOUNS CLASSES. 43
IT. THE USES OF WORDS.
Prin. By their uses words are distinguished as,
Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs,
Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, Exclamations, and
Words of Euphony,
NOUNS.
Def« 42* A Noun is a word used as the name of a being*, place, or thing*.
Obs. Nouns are names of —
1. material things — as, man — book — apple; or,
2. of ideas or things not material — as, mind — hope — desire — passion.
CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS.
Remark. — Some nouns are appropriated to individual persons or places, or to things personified; others are general in their application, being used to designate classes or sorts. Hence,
PriM. Nouns are distinguished as Proper and Common. Def« 43. A name, appropriated to an individual person or place, or to a thing personified, is a Proper Noun. Examples — William — Boston — Hudson — Oregon.
Def» 44« A name used to designate one or more of a class or sort of beings or things, is a Common Noun.
Examples — Man— book — American — conscience — feeling.
Obs. 1. — A Common Noun is a name by which the individu- ality of a being or thing is designated. But, in addition to this office, some nouns are the names of qualities.
Def. 44, a. — Such are properly called Abstract Nouns.
Examples- — Goodness — excellence — rashness — moderation.
44 PART II. ETYMOLOGY NOUNS.
Obs. 2. — Some nouns include many individuals in one term. Def. 44, b. — Such are called Collective Nouns,
Examples — Committee — army — company — fraternity.
Obs. 3. — Some nouns are derived from verbs, and constitute merely the names of acts.
Def. 44, c. — Such are called Verbal Nouns.
Examples — [In the] beginning — [" the] triumphing [of the wicked."] Rem. — The classification of nouns as Common and Proper, is one ra- ther of cariosity than of practical utility in the Science of Language.
MODIFICATION OF NOUNS.
Rem. — Some nouns and pronouns, by their form, by their position in a sentence, or by their obvious uses, indicate —
1. The sex — as male or female, or neither.
2. The speaker, the being addressed, or the being or thing spoken of.
3. The number of beings or things — as one or more.
4. The condition, with regard to other words in the sentence — as,
(1.) The Subject of a sentence.
(2.) The Object of a sentence or phrase.
(3.) Independent in construction. Hence,
Prm. Nouns are modified by Gender, Person, Number, and Case.
GENDER.
Def* 45» Names of males are of the Masculine Gender.
Examples — Man — lion — ox — king — brother — preceptor.
Def. 46. Names of females are of the Feminine Gender.
Examples — Woman — lioness — cow — queen — sister — precep- tress.
Def. 47. Names of things without sex are said to be of the Neuter Gender.
Obs. 1. — Strict propriety will allow the names of animals only to he modified by gender.
Obs. 2. — Young animals and infants are not always distin- guished by gender : as, " Mary's kitten is very playful — it is quite a pet with the whole family."
u Calm as an infant as it sweetly sleeps."
NOUNS MODIFICATION.
45
Obs. 3. — Things personified are often represented by pro- nouns of the masculine or feminine gender. Examples — " Then Fancy Iter magical pinions spread wide." " Time slept on flowers, and lent his glass to Hope."
" For the Angel of Death spread his wings on the blast, And breathed in the face of the foe as he pass'd."
Obs. 4. — Many nouns which denote the office or condition of persons, and some others, are not distinguished by gender.
Examples — Parent — cousin — friend — neighbor.
Obs. 5. — Whenever words are used which include both males and females, without having a direct reference to the sex, the word appropriated to males, is commonly employed.
Examples — " The proper study of mankind is man"
" There is no flesh in man's obdurate heart — It does not feel for man."
But to this rule there are exceptions- — as, geese — ducks.
Prill, The gender of nouns is determined 1 . By the termination ; as,
Masc. Fern.
Actor, Actress.
Administrator, Administratrix.
Author,
Governor,
Heir,
Host,
Hero,
Jew,
Lion,
Authoress.
Gpverness.
Heiress.
Hostess.
Heroine.
Jewess.
Lioness.
Masc. Patron, Prince, Protector, Shepherd, Songster, Tiger, Tutor, Tailor, Widower,
Fern. Patroness. Princess. Protectress. Shepherdess. Songstress. Tigress. Tutoress. Tailoress Widow.
2. By different words ; as,
Masc. Fern, Bachelor, Maid.
Beau,
Boy,
Brother,
Drake,
Father,
Friar,
Belle.
Girl.
Sister.
Duck.
Mother.
Nun.
Masc. Husband, King, Lad, Lord, Man, Master, Nephew,
Fern. Wife. Queen.
Lass.
Lady.
Woman.
Mistress. Niece.
46 PART II. ETYMOLOGY NOUNS.
3. By prefixing1 or affixing* other words.
Masc. Fern.
Man-servant, Maid-servant.
He-goat, She-goat.
Cock-sparrow, Hen-sparrow.
Landlord, Landlady.
Gentleman, Gentlewoman.
Note. — In the English language, less importance, is attached to the gender of nouns than in the Latin, Greek, and other languages — the rela- tion of words in sentences depending more upon position and less upon the terminations. Hence, in parsing Nouns and Pronouns, the gender need not be mentioned, unless they are obviously masculine or feminine.
PERSON.
Rem* — All nouns are the names of
1. The persons speaking.
2. The persons or things addressed. Or,
3. The persons or things spoken of. Hence,
Prin« Nouns and pronouns are of the First Person, Second Person, or Third Person. Deft 48. The name of the person speaking* is of the First Person.
Examples — " I, John, saw these things." c* We Athenians are in fault."
Defa 49# The name of a person or thing* ad- dressed is of the Second Person.
EXAMPLES.
" Father, thy hand Hath reared these venerable columns ; thou Didst weave this verdant roof."
Deft 50. The name of the person or thing* spo- ken of is of the Third Person.
Examples — " The hero hath departed." " Honor guides his footsteps."
NUMBER.
Rem. — Nouns by their form denote individuality or plurality. Hence,
Prllli Nouns are distinguished as Singular and Plural.
NOUNS MODIFICATION. 47
Def» 51# Nouns denoting' but one are of the Singular Number.
Examples — Man — boy — pen — book — mouse — ox.
Def. 52. Nouns denoting* more than one are of the Plural Number.
Examples — Men — boys — pens — books — mice — oxen. Obs. — The Number of a noun is usually determined by the form.
1. The Plural of most nouns differs from the Singular by haying an additional s.
EXAMPLES.
Singular. — Act, egg, book, mastiff, pen, chair. Plural. — Acts, eggs, books, mastiffs, pens, chairs.
2. But a noun whose Singular form ends in s, ss, sA, z, ch (soft), and some nouns in 0 and y, form the Plural by the addi- tion of es.
EXAMPLES.
Singular. — Gas, lynx, church, lash, glass, hero. Plural. — Gases, tynxes, churches, lashes, glasses, heroes.
3. Y final, after a consonant, is changed into ie (the original orthography), and $ is added.
EXAMPLES.
Singular. — Lady, folly, quality. Old Form. — Ladie, follie, qualitie. Plural. — Ladies, follies, qualities.
4. Many nouns ending mforfe. change/ into ves.
EXAMPLES.
Singular. — Life, wife, leaf, sheaf, half. Plural. — Lives, wives, leaves, sheaves, halves.
To this rule there are exceptions.
5. Irregular Plurals.
EXAMPLES.
Singular. — Man, child, foot, ox, mouse. Plural. — Men, children, feet, oxen, mice.
6. In a compound word, the principal word is varied to form the Plural.
EXAMPLES.
Singular. — Father-in-law, aid-de-camp, fellow-servant. Plural. — Fathers-in-law, aids-de-camp, fellow-servants.
48 PART II.— ETYMOLOGY NOUNS.
7. Some nouns have no Plurals. Examples — Wheat — silver — gold — iron — gratitude.
8. Some nouns have no Singular.
Examples — Tongs — embers — vespers — literati— -scissors.
9. Some nouns have the same form in both numbers.
EXAMPLES.
Singular.— ^Apparatus, news, wages, sheep, vermin. Plural. — -Apparatus, news, wages, sheep, vermin.
10. Some nouns, having a Singular form, are used in a Plu- ral sense.
Examples — Horse — foot — cavalry — cannon — sail. One thousand horse and two thousand/^ — five hundred cavalry — fifty cannon — twenty sail of the line— and, for supplies, five hundred head of cattle.
11. Some nouns, having no Plural form to indicate Number, receive a Plural termination to indicate different species.
Examples — Wines — " Most wines contain over twenty per cent, of al- cohol." Tea — " The teas of the Nankin Company are alt good."
12. Many Latin, Greek, and Hebrew nouns used in English composition, retain their original Plurals. Commonly the ter- minations urn, us, and on, of the Singular, are changed into a, for the Plural ; x into ces. and is into es.
examples. Singular. — Datum, genus, criterion, index, axis. Plural. — Data, genera, criteria, indices, axes.
Note. — For other examples of Number, see Appendix, Note C.
Exercises in Gender, Person, and Number.
ggr Let the class give, 1st, the Gender — 2d, the Person — 3d, the Num- ber of each of the following names — always giving a reason for the mod- ification, by repeating the definitions.
William, Boy, Town, Army,
Ganges, Girl, County, Data,
Andes, Aunt, Troy, Index,
Cuba, Cousin, City, Question.
£3^ Let sentences be made in which the following words shall be in the Second Person.
Father, Stars, Thou, Heralds,
Mother, Hills, You, Messengers,
Sun, Rivers, Ye, Walls,
Earth, Woods, Men, Floods.
§3^* Let other sentences be made having the same words in the Third Person.
NOUNS MODIFICATION. 49
Let the following Singular Nouns be changed to their Plurals and placed in sentences — always giving the Rule for the change of number.
Boy, Motto, Fox, Ox, Son-in-law,
Father, Hero, Staff, Pea, Spoon-full,
Man, Knife, Goose, Basis, Cousin-german,
Child, Hoof, Mouse, Stratum, Knight-errant.
JTg^ Let the Gender and Number of the following nouns be changed and placed in sentences.
Man, Bachelor, Brother, Poetess,
Boys, Lioness, Sons, Prince,
Uncles, Geese, Sister, Tutor,
Cousin, Cow, Maid, Widower.
§3?" Let the class turn to page 28, and point out all the nouns, and mention their classes, and their modifications of Gender, Person, and Number.
CASE.
Rem* — All nouns and pronouns are used-
1. As the Subject of a sentence.
2. As a Definitive of some other noun.
3. As the Object of an action or relation, or
4. Independent of other words in the sentence.
These different conditions of nouns suggest their modifications in re- gard to case ; for case in grammar means condition. Hence,
Prin. Nouns are distinguished as being- in the
Nominative Case, Possessive Case,
Objective Case, Independent Case.
Def. 53# A Noun or Pronoun which is the Subject of a sentence, is in the Nominative Case.
Examples — Animals run — John saws wood — Resources are developed. u The king of shadows loves a shining mark."
Deft 54o A Noun or Pronoun varied in its or- thography, so as to indicate a relation of possession, is in the Possessive Case.
Obs. 1. — The Possessive is formed by adding an apostrophe and s to the Nominative.
EXAMPLES.
Nom. — Man, . boy, world, George. Pos. — Man's, boy's, world's, George's.
50 PART II.— ETYMOLOGY— NOUNS.
Obs. 2. — Most plural nouns ending in s, add the apostrophe only.
EXAMPLES,
Nom. — Horses, eagles, foxes, Pos. — Horses'. eagles'. foxes'.
Obs. 3. — Many nouns ending in the singular in s, or ce, add the apostrophe only.
EXAMPLES.
Nom. — Mechanics, conscience,
Pes. — Mechanics'. conscience'.
New York Mechanics' Association. He suffered for conscience' sake.
Note. — A noun or pronoun in the Possessive case is used adjectively. [For illustration, see Appendix, Note E.J
Obs. The Possessive case does not always indicate " posses- sion or ownership." Children's shoes. Here the word " chil- dren's" does not imply ownership. It simply specifies " shoes" as to size. — Small shoes. Here " small" specifies " shoes" in a similar manner — u small" and " children's," performing similar offices, are similar in their etymology ; " small" is an adjec- tive— " children's" is an Adjective.
Note. — Nouns and Pronouns become Adjectives whenever their principal office is to specify or describe other names : and they may have the form of the Nominative, Possessive, or Ob- jective case.
EXAMPLES.
Steel pens. — Silver steel. — A he goat. — Our national resources. — New England customs. — Wood engravings. — Upland cotton. — A she goat. — Their enemies. — Paris fashions.
" O, m,y offence is rank — it smells to heaven ; It hath the primal, eldest curse upon it, A brother's murder."
Deft £>5. A noun or pronoun which is the Ob- ject of a sentence or a phrase, is in the Objective Case.
Examples — John saws wood — Science promotes happiness.
64 The king of shadows loves a shining mark?'' ? In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.11 " Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow.11
NOUNS— MODIFICATION. 5 1
Def. 56. A noun or pronoun not dependent on any other word in construction, is in the
Independent Case.
Obs. — The Independent case includes —
1. The names of persons addressed.
Examples — O Liberty ! — " Friends, Romans, countrymen !"
2. Names used to specify or define other names, previously mentioned.
Examples — Paul the Apostle wrote to Timothy. Here " Paul" is the subject of " wrote," hence in the Nominative case (See Def. 53). " Apos- tle" designates which " Paul" is intended ; hence, in the Independent case.
3. Nouns used to introduce independent phrases. Examples — The hour having arrived, we commenced the exercises.
4. Nouns and pronouns used in predication with verbs. Examples — " God is love" — " It is J" — " The wages of sin is death."
5. Nouns and pronouns used for euphony, titles of books, cards, signs, &c.
EXAMPLES.
"The moon herself is lost in heaven." " Webster's Dictionary' '— " Munson and Bradley"
Obs. — In the English language, nouns are not varied in form to distinguish the cases (except for the Possessive). Com- monly, the case of a noun is determined by its position in a sentence — the Subject (nominative) taking the first place, the Object (objective) the last.
EXAMPLES.
Subject. Object.
John assists William.
William assists John.
But this natural order of position is often reversed by the poets and public speakers.
EXAMPLES.
" Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, And all the air a solemn stillness holds."
" Him, from my childhood, J have known."
" Thee we adore."
52 PART II. ETYMOLOGY NOUNS.
Exercises.
Let the class turn 10 pages 25 and 28, and point out the nouns- naming the cases of each, and the reason for each modification, after the following
MODEL. I. " The Lord uplifts his awful hand. And chains you to the shore"
Lord, .is a name ; hence a Noun — for " the name of a being, place, or
thing, is a Noun." " Name, in this instance appropriated to an individual Being ; hence
Proper — for " a name appropriated to an individual person," is a
Proper Noun." " Name appropriated to males ; hence Masculine Gender — for
"names of males are in the Masculine Gender." " Spoken of; hence Third Person — for " the name of the person or
thing spoken of is of the Third Person." " Denotes but one ; hence Singular Number — for " nouns denoting
but one are of the Singular Number." " Subject of the sentence ; hence Nominative Case — for " the sub- ject of a sentence is in the Nominative Case."
Hand, .is a name ; hence a Noun — for " the name of a being, place, or
thing, is a Noun." " Name of a class of things ; hence Common — for " a name used
to designate a class of things is a Common Noun." " Not distinguished by sex ; hence Neuter Gender — for " names
of things without sex are of the Neuter Gender." " Spoken of; hence Third Person — for " the name of the person or
thing spoken of is of the Third Person." " Denotes but one ; hence Singular Number — for " nouns denoting
but one are of the Singular Number." " Object of the sentence; hence Objective Case — for " the object
of a sentence or phrase is in the Objective Case."
Shore. . is a name ; hence a Noun — for " the name of a being, place, or
thing, is a Noun." " Name of a class of things; hence Common — foi " a name used
to designate a class of things is a Common Noun." " Not distinguished by sex ; hence Neuter Gender-— for " names
of things without sex are of the Neuter Gender." " Spoken of; hence Third Person — for " the name of the person or
thing spoken of, is of the Third Person."
s* Denotes but one ; hence Singular Number — for " nouns denoting
but one, arc of the Singular Number." " Object of a Phrase; hence Objective Case — for " the object of a
sentence or phrase is in the Objective Case."
PRONOUNS CLASSIFICATION. 53
PRONOUNS.
Rem. — To avoid an unpleasant repetition of the same word in a sen- tence, a class of words is introduced as substitutes for names. Hence,
Deft 57. A word used instead of a Noun, is called a Pronoun.
Obs. — As pronouns are of general application, the noun for which any given pronoun is substituted is commonly determined by the context — and, because it generally precedes the Pronoun, it is called its antecedent.
CLASSIFICATION OF PRONOUNS.
Rem. — Some Pronouns, by their forms, denote their modification of Gender, Person, Number, and Case.
Others relate directly to the nouns for which they are used.
Others, in addition to their ordinary office, are used in asking questions.
Others describe the names for which they are substituted. Hence,
Priih Pronouns are distinguished as
Personal, Interrogative , and
Relative,
Adjective.
PERSONAL PRONOUN.
Deft 58. A Pronoun whose form determines its Person and Number, is a
Personal Pronoun.
List. — The simple Personal Pronouns are, I, thou or you, he. she, it. Their corresponding Compounds are, myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, itself.
MODIFICATION.
Rem. — Whenever one word is used in the place of another, it is pro- perly subjected to the same laws as the other : this is true of Pronouns. Hence,
Prfn. Pronouns have the same modifications of
Gender, Person, Number, and Case, as Nouns.
Note. — Pronouns of the First and Second Persons are not varied to denote the sex.
54
PAPwT II. ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS.
Rem* — To denote these several Modifications, some Pronouns are varied in form. This variation of form is called
DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS.
Nominative. Singular . . I Plural . . we .
FIRST PERSON.
Possessive. Objective. . my# . . me . . our . . us .
SECOND PERSON.
Singular . You . . your . . you Plural . You . . your . . you
second person. — Solemn Style. Singular . Thou . . thy . . thee Plural .Ye . . your . . you
third person. — Masculine. Singular . He . . his . . him Plural . They . . their . . them ;
third person. — Feminine. Singular . She . . her . . her Plural . They . . their . . them .
third person. — Neuter. Singular . It ... its ... it . . Plural . They . . their . . them .
Independent. I or met we
. you . you
. thou
• ye
. he or him . they
. she . they
. it . they
Obs. 1. — Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, are used — in common with other definitives — substantively, i. e., as the representatives of nouns which it is their primary office to specify. They are then properly called Adjective Pronouns.
Examples — '•' He is a friend of mine." " Thine is the kingdom." " Theirs had been the vigor of his youth."
* My, thy, his, her, our, your, their, its, mine, and thine, when used to specify or otherwise describe nouns and pronouns (and they commonly are so used), are to be classed as Adjectives. They are placed here to denote their origin, and to accommodate those Teachers who prefer to call them Pronouns. [For an exposition of their true etymology, see Appendix, Note E. — See, also, Webster's Grammar.]
t Pronouns in the Independent Case, commonly take the form of the Nominative, as " O happy they!" " Ah luckless he!" " It is //"
But they sometimes take the form of the Objective, as " Him excepted." " I found it to be him" " It was not me that you saw." " Ah me .'"
PRONOUNS CLASSIFICATION. 55
Obs. 2. — The Pronoun it, is often used indefinitely.
Examples — It snows — it rains — is it you 1
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
Def. 59. A Pronoun used to introduce a sen- tence which qualifies its antecedent, is a Relative Pronoun. List. — They are, who, which, that, and what Obs. 1. — Who is varied in Declension to indicate the Cases only. Which, that, what, are not declined.
Norn. Pos. Obj. Indep.
Who, Whose,* Whom, Who or Whom.
Which, Which, Which.
That, That, That.
What, What, What.
Obs. 2. — Who is applied to man, or to beings supposed to pos- sess intelligence.
Examples — He who studies will excel those who do not. " He whom sea-severed realms obey."
Obs. 3. — Which and what are applied to brute animals and things.
Examples — The books which I lost. The pen which I use, is good. We value most what costs us most.
Obs. 4. — That is applied to man or things.
Examples — Them that honor me, I will honor.
" "Where is the patience now, That you so oft have boasted to retain." — Lear.
Obs. 5. — What, when used as a Relative, is always compound ; and is equivalent to that which, or the things which.
The two elements of this word never belong to the same sen- tence ; one part introduces a sentence which qualifies the ante- cedent part of the same word.
" Our proper bliss depends on what we blame."
In this example, " What" is a compound Relative, equivalent to the two words, that which. That — the Antecedent part — is the object of "on:" u which"-- -the Relative part — is the object
* Whose is always a definitive, attached to nouns, and may relate to persons or things—as " Whose 1 am, and whom I serve." " Whose body Nature is, and God the soul."
56 PART II. ETYMOLOGY PRONOUNS.
of "blame." The Auxiliary sentence, " we blame which/' is used to qualify " that." [See page 32, Diagram 23.]
Obs. — The compounds, whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichso- ever, whatever, and whatsoever, are construed similarly to what.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
Def, 60. A Pronoun that is used to ask a ques- tion, is an Interrogative Pronoun.
List. — They are, who, which, and what.
Obs. — Who is applied to man; which and what, to man or things.
Examples— " WJw will show us any goodl" " Which do you prefer 1" " Wliich of the officers was killed P " What will a man give in exchange for his soul'?"
Obs. — Which and what are often used as Adjectives.
Examples — Which book is yours 1 What evil hath he done 1
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
Bef. 61 • A definitive word used to supply the place of a Noun, which it defines, is an Adjective Pronoun.
Example — " Some [ ] said one thing, and some, another" [ ] Obs. 1. — In this example, "some" defines people (understood), and is, therefore, used adjectively ; — it is substituted for the word a people," constituting the Subject of the sentence — hence it is used substantively. But the substantive office, being the principal office, the word is properly called a Pronoun. Its secondary office being adjective, it is properly called an Adjec- tive Pronoun.
Obs. 2. — The following words are often thus used : All, Former, Neither, Such,
Both, Last, None, That,
Each, Latter, One, These,
Either, Least, Other, Those,
Few, Less, Several, This.
Most specifying, and all qualifying Adjectives may be thus used.
Examples — " The good alone are great" li The poor respect the rich." " One step from the sublime to the ridiculous."
NOUN PRONOUNS CLASSIFICATION.
57
RECAPITULATION.
" Radical
Words are dis- . ;inguished by their *
Nouns are
Pronouns are
Forms and
Uses.
Proper
or
Common.
Personal, Relative, Interrogative, Adjective.
Separable, Inseparable.
S Prefix, Root, Suffix. Simple,
n i ( Basis,
[.Compound, jAdju;ct
Noun,
Pronoun,
Adjective,
Verb,
Adverb,
Preposition, ;
Conjunction,
Exclamation.
Substantive,
Abstract,
Collective,
Verbal.
MODIFICATION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
Nouns and Pro- nouns are modified
by
Gender,
Person, Number,
Case.
Masculine,
Feminine,
Neuter.
First,
Second,
Third.
Singular,
Plural. f Nominative, J Possessive, ] Objective, [_ Independent.
2*
58 PART II. ETYMOLOGY.— PRONOUNS.
Exercises.
UI see them on their winding wayP 1 is used for the name of a person ; hence a Pronoun — for " a word
used for a noun, is a Pronoun." " Its form determines its person and number ; hence Personal —
for "a Pronoun whose form determines its person and number,
is a Personal Pronoun." " Denotes the speaker ; hence First Person — for " the name of the
person speaking is of the First Person." " Denotes but one ; hence Singular Number — for " nouns denoting
but one are in the Singular Number." " Subject of the sentence ; hence Nominative Case — for " the sub-
ject of a sentence is in the Nominative Case." Them, .is used for the name of persons; hence a Pronoun — for "a word
used for a noun, is a Pronoun." " Its form determines its person and number ; hence Personal — for
" a Pronoun whose form determines its person and number, is
a Personal Pronoun."
" Denotes persons spoken of; hence Third Person — for " the name of a person or thing spoken of, is of the Third Person."
" Denotes more than one; hence Plural Number — for "nouns denoting more than one are of the Plural Number." Object of the sentence; hence Objective Case — for "the object of a sentence or a phrase, is in the Objective Case."
|y In like manner, let the Pronouns in the following sentences be parsed.
u That the page unfolds And spreads us to the gaze of God and men." " You wronged yourself,'1 6i What we honor, you despise.* " Whatever is, is right." "She raised the napkin, o'er them spread. Which hid them from her view." " The rich and the poor meet together. The Lord is the maker of them all." " Train up a child in the way he should go ; And, when he is old, he will not depart from it." " He that oppresseth the poor to increase his riches, And he that giveth to the rich, shall surely come to want." u Be not thou one of them that strike hands, Or of them that: are sureties for debts." ". . . . And yon clear spring that .... Wells softly forth, and visits the strong roots Of half the mighty forest, tells no tale Of all the good it does." [See Diagram 5.]
ADJECTIVES. 59
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.
In how many ways are words distinguished 1
By their forms, how are they distinguished %
What is a Radical word?
What is a Derivative word?
What is a Simple word ?
What is a Compound word ?
What is a Prefix ? What is a Suffix?
What is a Separable Radical ? — Inseparable ?
By their uses, how are words distinguished 1
What is a Noun?
What is a Proper Noun? — A Common Noun?
What are the distinctions of Common Nouns ?
What is an Abstract Noun? — Collective? — Verbal?
How are Nouns and Pronouns modified 1
What does the term Masculine Gender denote ^
What Feminine Gender ? — What Neuter Gender ?
How are the genders of Nouns determined %
Why are Nouns and Pronouns varied in Person?
What Nouns and Pronouns are of the First Person?
What of the Second Person ? — What of the Third Person ?
Why a distinction of Number ?
What Nouns and Pronouns are of the Singular Number ?
What are of the Plural Number ?
How is the Plural of Nouns commonly formed 1
Why are Nouns and Pronouns distinguished by Case ?
When are Nouns and Pronouns in the Nominative Case ?
When in the Possessive ? — the Objective ? — the Independent ?
Nouns and Pronouns in the Possessive Case are placed with what
class of words 1 — Why 1 What is a Pronoun 1 Why are they used 1 What are the classes ? Name them. What is a Personal Pronoun? Name them. What is a Relative Pronoun? Name them. What is an Interrogative Pronoun ? Name them. What is an Adjective Pronoun ? What are the modifications of Pronouns ^
ADJECTIVES.
Rem. — As things possess individuality, and have points of difference from each other; so we have words which point out and describe those things, and mark their difference from other things. Hence,
Def« 62. A word used to qualify or otherwise describe a noun or pronoun is
An Adjective.
Examples — Good — amiable — the — our — earnest — falling — young — conscientious — correct — famous.
60 PART II. ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVES.
A good boy. An amiable young lady. Our national resources. An earnest culture.
Falling leaves. Conscientious Christian. Correct expression. Famous orators.
CLASSIFICATION. Rem. — Adjectives are used —
1. To express a quality — as, good boy — red rose — sweet apule.
2. To specify or limit — as, the book — thy pen — three boys.
3. To express, incidentally, a condition, state, or act — as, lov-
ing— wheeling — injured. Hence,
Prim Adjectives are distinguished as Qualifying Adjectives, Specifying Adjectives, and Verbal Adjectives. >
Def» 68. A word used to describe a noun, by expressing* a quality, is
A Qualifying Adjective.
Examples — Good — sweet — cold — honorable — amiable — vir- tuous.
An honorable man. An amiable disposition. A virtuous woman.
Some good fruit. Three sweet oranges. Much cold water.
Deft 64, A word used to define or limit the ap- plication of its noun, is
A Specifying Adjective.
Examples — A — an — the — this — that — some — three — my.
That mountain in the distance. Some good fruit. Three sweet oranges. My enemy.
Obs. — Adjectives derived from proper nouns are called Pro* per Adjectives.
A man of letters. An educated man. The question at issue. This road.
Examples — Arabian — Grecian — Turkish — French.
ADJECTIVES CLASSIFICATION. 61
Rem* — Adjectives may specify —
1. By simply pointing out things— by limiting or designating.
2. By denoting relation of ownership, adaptation or origin.
3. By denoting number, definite or indefinite. Hence,
Prim Specifying* Adjectives are distinguished as Pure, Numeral, and Possessive.
Deft 65. A word used only to point out or desig- nate things is A Pure Adjective.
Examples — The — that — those- — such — next — same — other
Thou art the man. That question is settled. Those books are received. "Such shames are common.'
The next class.
The same lesson.
Other cares intrude.
Any man may learn wisdom.
Def. 66. A word used to describe things by in- dicating a relation of ownership, is A Possessive Adjective.
Examples — My — our — their — whose — children's — John's — teacher's.
My father — my neighbor.
Our enemies.
Their losses are severe.
Children's shoes. John's horse. Teacher's absence.
Note. — When a noun or pronoun assumes the possessive form, it loses its substantive character and becomes a definitive. The following illus- tration will make this truth quite evident : " John purchased an Arabian horse, and William an Indian pony. But John's horse having been in- jured, John exchanged it for William's pony."
Now, it is allowed that the word " Arabian," in the above example, is an Adjective — it specifies " horse" as to its origin — a particular kind of horse. As truly is the word "John's" an Adjective; for, in this connec- tion, it specifies ' ' horse" as to its present condition — a particular horse. It should be remembered that the words " John" and " John's" differ quite as much, even in form, as do the words " Arabia" and " Arabian." But John is a Noun — and so is Arabia ; because they are used only as names. " Ara- bian" is an Adjective — and so is "John's;" because, in the sentence above, they are each used to describe Xl horse." Each word has a substantive origin — each, with its change of form, has changed its office.
Note 2. — Nouns sometimes become Adjectives, without any change of form.
Examples — A gold pen — an iron stove — cedar posts.
62 PART II. ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVES.
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. Def. 67. A word used to denote Number, is a Numeral Adjective.
Examples — One — ten — first — second — twice — fourfold — few — many.
Obs. 1. — Numeral Adjectives may be
Cardinal One — Two — Three — Four.
Ordinal First — Second — Third — Fourth.
Multiplicative . . Once — Twice — Thrice.
Indefinite Few — Many — Some (denoting number),
Obs. 2. — A and An, when they denote number, are to be classed as Numeral Adjectives.
EXAMPLES.
" Not a drum was heard, nor a funeral note." " Not an instance is on record."
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
Dei. 68e A word used to describe a Noun or Pronoun, by expressing*, incidentally, a condition, state, or act, is a Verbal Adjective.
Obs. — This class of Adjectives consists of Participles — used primarily to describe Nouns and Pronouns.
" Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow."
In this example the sentence is, "I saw eagle ;" and "scaling yonder peak," is a phrase, used to describe " I." "Wheeling near its brow," describes " eagle." Scaling and wheeling are Participles used to describe a Noun and a Pronoun — hence they are in their office, Adjectives. [See Def. 62.] They describe by expressing (not in the character of Predicates, but), " inci- dentally, a condition, state, or act," of " I" and " eagle" — hence they are Verbal Adjectives.*
* Teachers who are unwilling to allow that a Participle " conveying the idea of time," is an Adjective, will do well here to explain the subject of Participles to their classes, according to their peculiar views. I have chosen the above arrangement as being more simple; and, in my view, more fully answering to the common definition of an Adjective. For further remarks on this subject, see the article " Participles," in its proper place.
ADJECTIVES MODIFICATION. 63
EXAMPLES.
A running brook. A standing pond. Disputed territory- Undoubted fact.
I saw a boy running to school. Another standing by the way. It is a truth undisputed. It is a fact undoubted.
Rem. — Participles used as Adjectives, commonly retain their verbal character, and like their verbs, may have objects after them. Hence,
Priflt Verbal Adjectives are distinguished as Transitive and Intransitive.
MODIFICATION OP ADJECTIVES.
Rem. — Most Qualifying Adjectives express, by variations in form, different degrees of quality. Hence,
Prin. Some Adjectives are varied in form, to denote Comparison.
There may be four degrees of comparison.
1. Diminutive, . . . bluish, . . . saltish,
2. Positive, .... blue, . . . salt,
3. Comparative, . . . bluer, . . . Salter,
4. Superlative, . . . bluest. . . . saltest.
Def. 69# The Diminutive Degree denotes an amount of the quality less than the Positive.
It is commonly formed by adding ish, to the form of the Positive.
Def. 70« The Positive Degree expresses quality in its simplest form, without a comparison.
Deft Tl# The Comparative Degree expresses an increase of the Positive.
It is commonly formed by adding er, to the form of the Posi- tive.
Def. ?2. The Superlative Degree expresses the highest increase of the quality of the Adjective.
It is commonly formed by adding est, to the form of the Positive.
64
PART II. — -ETYMOLOGY ADJECTIVES.
Obs. 1.— By the use of other words the degrees of Comparison may be rendered indefinitely numerous.
Examples — Cautious, somewhat cautious, very cautious, unusually cau- tious, remarkably cautious, exceedingly cautious, too little cautious, uncau- tious, quite uncautious.
Obs. 2. — Comparison descending, is expressed by prefixing the words less and least to the Adjective.
Wise, less wise, least wise ; ambitious, less ambitious, least
Examples ambitious.
Prin#
parison.
Positive. Good, Bad, Little, Many, Much,
Far, Old,
IRREGULAR COMPARISON. Some Adjectives are irregular in com-
EXAMPLES.
Comparative.
better,
worse,
less, .
more,
more,
farther,
further,
older,
elder,
S. fa: If*
Superlative. . best.
worst.
least.
most.
most.
farthest.
furthermost.
oldest.
eldest.
Obs. 1. — Most Adjectives of two or more syllables, are com- pared by prefixing the words more and most, or less and least, to the positive.
EXAMPLES.
Positive. Comparative. Superlative.
Careful more careful most careful.
Careful less careful least careful.
Obs. 2. — Some Adjectives may be compared by either method specified above.
EXAMPLES.
Positive. Comparative. Superlative.
Remote remoter remotest.
Remote more remote most remote.
Obs. 3. — Some Adjectives cannot be compared — the qualities they indicate not being susceptible of increase or diminution.
Examples. — Round — scuare- triangular — infinite.
ADJECTIVES CLASSIFICATION.
65
RECAPITULATION.
Adjectives are distin- guished as
Qualifying, <
Specifying,
_ Verbal,
Superlative, Comparative, Positive, _ Diminutive. rPure, < Numeral, £ Possessive. { Transitive, / Intransitive.
Exercises.
Let the pupil determine which of the following Adjectives are Qualifying, which are Specifying, and which are Verbal. Of the Quali- fying Adjectives, which can be compared, and how compared — of the Specifying Adjectives, which are Pure, which Numeral, which Posses- sive— of the Verbal, which are Transitive, which are Intransitive.
|
Able, |
False, |
That, |
Forgotten, |
|
Bold, |
Good, |
Three, |
Standing, |
|
Capable, |
Honest, |
Tenth, |
Loving, |
|
Doubtful, |
Infinite, |
Twice, |
Admonished |
|
Eager, |
Just, |
Several, |
Unknown. |
[jjp* Let the pupil point out the Adjectives, Nouns, and Pronouns, in the following sentences, and name their classes and modifications. Let him be careful to give a reason for the classification and modification of each, by repeating the appropriate definitions and observations.
Good scholars secure the highest approbation of their Teacher.
Some men do not give their children a proper education.
A trifling accident often produces great results.
An ignorant rich man is less esteemed than a wise poor man.
The richest treasure mortal times afford, is, spotless reputation.
u These dim vaults, These winding aisles, of human pomp or pride, Report not. No fantastic carvings show % The boast of our vain race, to change the form Of thy fair works. Thou art in the soft winds That run along the summits of these trees In music : — thou art in the cooler breath, That, from the inmost darkness of the place, Comes, scarcely felt : — the barky trunks, the ground. The fresh, moist ground, are all instinct with thee."
66 PART II. ETYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES.
These describes " vaults ;" hence an Adjective — for " a word used to
qualify or otherwise describe a noun or pronoun, is an Adjec- tive." " Specifies ; hence Specifying — for " an adjective used only to
specify, is a Specifying Adjective."
Dim qualifies " vaults ;" hence an Adjective — for " a word used to
qualify or otherwise describe a noun or pronoun, is an Adjec- tive."
" Expresses a quality; hence Qualifying — for " a word used to
describe a noun by expressing a quality, is a Qualifying
Adjective." Vaults is a name ; hence a Noun — for " the name of a being, place,
or thing, is a Noun." " Name of a sort or class; hence Common — for " a name used
to designate a class or sort of beings, places, or things, is a
Common Noun." " Spoken of; hence Third Person — for " the name of a person
or thing spoken of, is of the Third Person." " Denotes more than one; hence Plural Number — for "nouns
denoting more than one, are of the Plural Number." " Subject of the sentence; hence Nominative Case — for "the
subject of a sentence is in the Nominative Case."
Winding, .describes "aisles;" hence an Adjective — for "a word used to qualify or otherwise describe a noun or pronoun, is an Adjec- tive." " Describes, by expressing a condition; hence Verbal — for "a
word used to describe a noun by expressing incidentally a condition, state, or act, is a Verbal Adjective."
Human ... describes "pomp" or "pride;" hence an Adjective — for "a word used to qualify or otherwise describe a noun or pronoun, is an Adjective." " Expresses a quality ; hence Ctualifying — for " a word used to
describe a noun by expressing a quality, is a Ctualifying Adjective."
[It is profitable to repeat the Definitions, until they become familiar : after that, they may be omitted — the parts of speech and the classes and modifications of the several words being simply named, as in the follow- ing exercise.]
"No fantastic carvings show The boast of our vain race, to change the form Of thy fair works."
Class. Person. Number. Case.
No is an Adjective Specifying, limits " carvings."
Fantastic Adjective Ctualifying, qualifies " carvings."
Carvings Noun Common, Third, Plu. Nora, to "show."
The Adjective Specifying, limits " boast."
Boast Noun Common, Third, Sing. Obj. of '• show."
VERBS CLASSIFICATION. 67
_Jfp The teacher will abridge or extend these exercises at pleasure. Then let four sentences be made, each containing the word good, so that, in the first, it will qualify the Subject — in the second, the Object — in the third, the Object of a Phrase attached to the Subject — in the fourth, the object of a Phrase attached to the Object.
In like manner use the words amiable — honest — industrious — wise — this — so me — loving — loved.
aUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.
What is an Adjective ?
How many classes ? — their navies ?
What is a Qualifying Adjective?
What is a Specifying Adjective ?
How are Specifying Adjectives classified ? — their names?
What is a pure Specifying Adjective %
What is a Numeral Adjective i.
What is a Possessive Adjective 1
What is a Verbal Adjective 1
How are Adjectives modified ?
How many Degrees of Comparison? — their names?
What does the Diminutive Degree indicate 1
What the Positive? — the Comparative? — the Superlative?
How form the Diminutive? — the Comparative? — the Superlative?
Are all Adjectives compared?- — Why not 1
VERBS.
Rem.— As all things in the universe live, move, or have a being, we necessarily have a class of words used to express the act, being, or state of those things. Hence,
Def. 73. A word used to express the act, being, state of a person or thing, is A Verb.
CLASSIFICATION.
Rem. — The act expressed by some verbs, passes over to an object.
Hence,
Print Verbs are distinguished as Transitive, or Intransitive.
Def« 74. A verb that expresses an action which terminates on an object, is
A Transitive Verb.
Examples — John saws ivood — God created heaven and earth.
68 PART II. ETYMOLOGY VERBS.
Def# 75. A verb that expresses the being* or state of its subject, or an action which does not terminate on an object, is
An Intransitive Verb.
Examples — Animals run — I sit — John is sleepy.
Obs. — Some verbs are used transitively or intransitively.
Examples — " Cold blows the wind."
" The wind blows the dust."
" It has swept through the earth.,x
" Jane has swept the floor."
" God moves in a mysterious way."
" Such influences do not move me."
Obs. — -The verbs be, become, and other intransitive verbs, whose subjects are not represented as performing a physical act, are, by many grammarians, called
Neuter Verbs. Examples — He is — God exists — we become wise — they die.
MODIFICATION OF VERBS.
Rem. — Verbs that denote action, have two methods of representing the action,
1st — As done by its subject — as, Jane loves Lucy.
2d — As done to its subject — as, Lncy is loved by Jane. Hence —
Prill. Transitive Verbs have two voices — Active, and Passive.
Def. 76. The Active Voice represents the Sub- ject as performing* an action.
Example — Columbus discovered America.
Def. 77. The Passive Voice represents the sub- ject as being* acted upon.
Example — America was discovered by Columbus.
Obs.— The subject of a verb in the active voice, commonly becomes the object of a preposition, when the verb takes the passive form ; and the object of a verb in the active voice, be- comes the subject, in the passive.
VERBS' — MODIFICATION. 69
Ex.mp.s- { SrislStefbyWilMarn. } Th* «™ *» *** " William," the subject of the Active Verb, becomes the object of " by,"
when the verb becomes Passive ; and " Charles," the object of the Active
Verb, becomes the subject of the Passive.
Note. — The Passive Voice of a verb is formed by adding the Passive Participle of that verb to the verb be.
Examples — Active — To love, I fear, They worship.
Passive— To be loved. I am feared. They are worshiped.
Obs. — Most Transitive Verbs may take the Passive form. But few Intransitive Verbs take the Passive form. Example — We laughed at his clownish performance — (Active Intrans.) His clownish performance was laughed at. — (Passive.)
MODE.
Rem* — In addition to their primary signification, verbs perform a secondary office — i. e., they indicate some attendant or qualifying circum- stances. This is indicated by the variations of the form of the verb, or by prefixing auxiliary words.
1. A verb may simply express a fact.
2. It may express a fact as possible, probable, obligatory, &c.
3. It may express a fact conditionally.
4. It may express a command, or request.
5. It may express the name of an act, or a fact unlimited by a subject. H^nce,
Print Verbs have five modes of expressing their signification —
Indicative,, Subjunctive,
Potential, Imperative, and
Infinitive.
Def. 78. A verb used simply to indicate or as- sert a fact, or to ask a question, is in the
Indicative Mode.
Examples — " God created the heaven and the earth."
" Is he not honest ?" u Whence come wars ?"
Deft 79. A verb indicating probability, power, will, or obligation, of its subject, is in the
Potential Mode. Obs. — Words which may be regarded as signs of the Poten-
70 PART II.— ETYMOLOGY— VERES.
tial Mode, are, may — might — can — could— must— shall — -should
— will — would.
Examples— I may go-~-you might have gone — John should study*- Mary can learn — It could not be done.
Def. 80. A verb expressing* a fact conditionally (hypothetically) is in the
Subjunctive Mode.
Obs. — If, though, unless, and other conjunctions, are com- monly used with the Subjunctive Mode. But they are not to be regarded as the signs of this Mode ; for they are also used with the Indicative and the Potential.
Examples— -If the boat goes to-day, I shall go in it.
I would stay if I could conveniently. The condition expressed by " if the boat goes," is assumed as a fact — hence, " goes" is in the Indicative Mode.
Note. — The Subjunctive Mode is limited to Auxiliary (Ad- verbial) Sentences.
Def. 81. A verb used to command, or entreat, is in the
Imperative Mode.
Obs. — -As we can command only a person or thing addressed, the subject of an Imperative verb must be of the Second Per- son ; and, as a person addressed is supposed to be present to the speaker, the name of the subject is usually understood.
Examples — Cry aloud — Spare not. But it is often expressed,
" Go ye into all the world."
• Def. 82. A verb used without limitation by a subject, is in the
Infinitive Mode.
Obs. 1. — The preposition to, is usually placed before the Infin- itive verb.
Obs. 2. — As a verb in the Infinitive has no Subject, it can- not be a Predicate. It is used —
1. Substantively ; as — To do good is the duty of all.
2. Adjectively ; as — The way to do good.
3. Adverbially ; as — I ought to do good.
PARTICIPLES CLASSIFICATION, 71
PARTICIPLES.
Rem* — [See Appendix, Note D.]
Deft 83. A word derived from a verb, retaining* the signification of its verb, while it also performs the office of some other part of speech, is called
A Participle. Prill. Most verbs have three Participles.
Present, . . . walking, loving,
Past, .... walked, loved,
Compound, . having walked, . having loved.
Defi 84. The Present Participle represents time as present, when an .act expressed by it teas, is, or shall be, performed.
Obs. — It is distinguished by its form. The Present Partici- ple of the active voice always ends in ing.
Defi 85. The Past (or second) Participle repre- sents time as past, when the act expressed by it ivas, is, or shall be, performed.
Obs. — The Past Participle of a Regular Verb ends in d or ed. Those of Irregular Yerbs end variously. [See list.]
Deft 86» The Compound Participle consists of the Participle of a principal verb, added to the word having, or being, or to the two words having been.
Examples — Having loved — being loved — having been loved.
Note. — Participles have no distinct etymological character. They find a place in all the u parts of speech" — being used
1. As a Noun — In the beginning — the plowing. William maintains a fair standing in society.
2. As an Adjective — A running brook — a standing tree. That tree standing on the common, is the Charter Oak.
3. As an Adverb — " 'Tis passing strange "
72 part ii.— etymology— participles.
4. As a Preposition — " I speak concerning Christ and the church." " Nothing was said touching that question,"
5. As a Conjunction — Seeing we cannot agree, the discussion may be dropt.
6. As an Exclamation — Shocking !
7. In Predication with Auxiliary Verbs — We have been sing- ing. " The spring time of year is coming."
Prin« Participles, like the verbs from which they are derived, are
Transitive, or Intransitive.
Obs. — A Participle used as a Preposition, must be Transitive. A Participle used as a Noun, Adjective, or in Predi- cation, may be Transitive. A Participle used as a Conjunction, or Adverb, must be Intransitive.
Rem. — To render the classification more simple, I have preferred to class all Participles used chiefly to describe Nouns and Pronouns, as Adjectives — and, because they are derived from verbs and retain more or less of the properties of the verbs from which they are derived, I use the term Verbal Adjective. I have given my views on this subject more fully in Note D, Appendix.
But Teachers who are unwilling to do more than simply to call it a Participle, will not find it difficult to adapt their views to the plan of this work ; — the pupil being taught that
" Participles, like Adjectives, belong to Nouns and Pronouns"
And, in the use of Diagrams, —
Participles occupy the same position as Adjectives.
TENSE.
Rem.— Generally the form of the Verb denotes, not only the manner, but also the time, of the action or event expressed by it. Hence the dis- tinction of Tense.
Def. 87# Tense is a modification of verbs, denot- ing* distinctions of time.
Rem. — Time is present, past, or future 5 — It is also definite or indefi- nite. Hence,
Print Most verbs have six Tenses. Present, Prior Past,
Past Definite, Past Indefinite,
Future, Prior Future.
VERBS MODIFICATION. 73
Def. 88. A verb expressing an action or event as now taking place, is in the
Present Tense,
EXAMPLES.
Eliza studies. Do you hear the bell ?
Ellen is reading. Emily may write that Diagram.
Obs. — This is the simplest form of the verb ; — the sign do, is used to denote intensity, and in asking questions.
Deft 89# A verb, when it indicates that the speaker or writer refers to some particular past time, is in the
Past Tense Definite.
Examples — I wrote you a letter — we walked to Troy.
Obs. — In Regular Verbs, the sign of this Tense is d or ed, added to the root of the verb. In Irregular Verbs, a distinct form is used. [See List.]
Deft 90» A verb denoting past time, without indicating a particular time, is in the Past Tense Indefinite.
examples.
I have been to Boston. We may have seen him.
John has deceived me. Mary has been prospered.
Obs. — Has and have, are the signs of this Tense.
Note. — An act or event expressed by the Past Tense Inde- finite, may be made definite by the aid of an Adjunct word, phrase, or sentence.
Examples — I have been to Boston to-day. We may have seen him when he was in town.
Def» 91 • A verb denoting- past time, previous to some other past time, is in the
Prior Past Tense.
Examples — I had been to Boston once before that time. Obs. — Had is the sign of this Tense,
4
74
PART II. ETYMOLOGY VERBS.
Def» 92» A verb denoting* that an act or event will take place hereafter, is in the
Future Tense.
Example — James will return to-morrow— I shall see him.
Obs. — Shall , in the First Person, and will, in the Second and Third, are the signs of this Tense.
Deft 889 A verb denoting" time past, after a cer- tain future time, is in the
Prior Future Tense.
Example — We shall have finished this recitation before the next class will come.
Obs. — Shall have and will have, are- the signs of this Tense.
Rem. — Distinctions of time are not indicated with precision by the form of the Verb. This must be done by the use of Adjuncts.
In the Potential Mode, the Tenses are quite indefinite — one form being often used for another.
The same remarks will apply to Participles, to the Infinitive — the Sub- junctive— and sometimes the Indicative.
recapitulation.
m
Ph <>
Transitive,
Intransitive
Indicative, <
Potential,
Present, Past Definite, Past Indefinite, Prior Past, Future. Prior Future. r Present, J Past Definite, I Past Indefinite, L Prior Past.
Subjunctive, 1 p '
Imperative, Present.
T - •,• S Present,
Infinitive, I pagt
C Present, L Participle, < Past,
£ Compound.
VERBS EXERCISES. 75
Exercises.
Let each Verb and Participle in the following exercises be pointed out, and its Class and Modification given.
I wrote.
Thou art reading. James may recite. Mary can study.
Retire. Let us alone. Permit me to pass. Let me go.
Joining the multitude. Accustomed to study. Willing to be taught. Having seen the Teacher.
It is pleasant to ride in a sail-boat.
We are all fond of singing.
Some are accustomed to sing by rote.
The young ladies ought to have attended the lecture.
By teaching others, we improve ourselves.
Being accustomed to study, we can learn that lesson easily.
Having been censured for idleness, John has resolved to be
diligent. By endeavoring to please all, we fail to please any. u To be, or not to be — that is the question." " Spirit ! I feel that thou Wilt soon depart — This body is too weak longer to hold The immortal part. The ties of earth are loosening, They soon will break; And thou, even as a joyous bird, Thy flight wilt take To the eternal world." " Truth crushed to earth will rise again, The eternal years of God are hers : But Error, wounded, writhes in pain, And dies amid her worshipers."
Crushed is [a Participle, from the verb crush ;] used here to de- scribe a condition of " Truth ;" hence, a verbal Adjective.
Will rise asserts an act of " Truth;" hence, a Verb.
" has no object; hence, Intransitive.
" simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode.
" denotes time future; hence. Future Tense.
Are asserts being of ': years ;" hence, a Verb.
" has no object; hence, Intransitive.
11 simply declares; hence. Indicative Mode.
" denotes time present ; hence. Present Tense.
76 PART II.— ETYMOLOGY— "VERBS.
Wounded is [a Participle, from the verb wound;] used here to de-
" scribe a condition of "Error;'' hence, verbal Adjective.
Writhes asserts an act of " Error j" hence, a Verb.
" has no object ; hence. Intransitive.
" simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode.
" denotes time present; hence, Present Tense.
" The surging billows and the gamboling storms Come crouching to his feet."
Surging is [a Participle, from the verb surge.]
" used here to describe "billows;" hence, a verbal Adjective.
Gamboling. ..is [a Participle^ from the verb gambol.]
" used here to describe " storms ;" hence, a verbal Adjective.
Come asserts an act of " billows " and " storms ;" hence, a Verb.
" has no object; hence, Intransitive.
" simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode.
" denotes time present; hence,. Present Tense.
Crouching. . ..is [a Participle, from the verb crouch.]
" used here to modify the act expressed by " come;"
" (it declares the manner of coming ;) hence, an Adverb.
" In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth."
Beginning is [a Participle, from the verb begin.]
" used here as the name of an event; hence, a verbal Noun.
Created asserts an act of " God ;" hence, a Verb.
" act passes to objects (heaven and earth) ; hence, Transitive.
" simply declares ; hence, Indicative Mode.
" denotes a particular time past ; hence, Past Tense Definite.
GtUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.
What is a Verb %
What is the first distinction of Verbs 7
What is a Transitive Verb 1 Intransitive 1
What is a Neuter Verb 1
What are the Modifications of Verbs 1
When is a Verb in the Active Voice 1
When is a Verb in the Passive Voice*?
How is the Passive Voice of a Verb formed 7
What Verbs take the Passive form 1
What is denoted by the term Mode ?
What are the Modes'?
When is a Verb in the Indicative Mode 1
When in the Potential 1— the Subjunctive'?
When in the Imperative 7— the Infinitive 1
What is a Participle 1
VERBS CONJUGATION. 77
How are Participles distinguished 1 What is a Present Participle? — how formed'? What is a Past Participle ? — how formed? What is a Compound Participle ? — how formed 1 To what " Parts of Speech " do Participles belong-? What Participles must be Transitive ? What Participles may be Transitive 1 What Participles must be Intransitive 1
CONJUGATION OF VERBS.
Rem. — We have seen that most verbs are varied in form to denote different modes and times of action or being.
They are also varied to correspond with their subjects in Person and Number.
The regular arrangement of the various forms of a verb, is called its
Conjugation.
Def. 94. A Verb which may be conjugated by one regular method of variation, to indicate its dif- ferent Modes and Tenses, and to correspond with its Subjects in Person and Number, is called A Regular Verb.
Obs. — A Regular Verb forms its Past Tense Definite and Passive Participle, by adding d or ed to the root of the verb.
|
EXAMPLES. |
||
|
Present. Love Fill Recite |
Past Definite. Loved Filled . Recited |
Participle. Loved. Filled. Recited. |
Def. 95. A Verb whose conjugation is not ac- cording to the regular formula, is called
An Irregular Verb.
|
Def. 96. A Verb that is not used Modes and Tenses, is called |
in all of the |
|
|
A Defective Verb. |
||
|
Present. Past. C Can, Could. List. ? May, Might. ( Must. |
Present. Shall, Will, Ought, |
Past. Should. Would. Ought. Quoth. |
78 PART II. ETYMOLOGY VERBS.
Def 97. A Verb that is prefixed to another verb, or to a Participle, to distinguish the Voice, Mode, or Tense, of the principal verb, is
An Auxiliary Verb.
lilST. <
Pres. Past.
Can, Could. ) Always
May, Might. ) Auxiliary.
Have, Had. ) Sometimes (
Will, Would. ) Principal. ( Be, Am, Was.
|
Pres. |
Past. |
|
Shall, |
Should |
|
Must. |
|
|
Do, |
Did. |
Obs. — When used as Auxiliary Verbs —
Can, may, must, shall (used to command) ; and will (signifying volition), are the signs of the Present, Potential.
Could, might, should and would, are the signs of the Past Tense Definite, Potential.
Have is the sign of the Past Tense Indefinite, Indica- tive.
Shall have is the sign of the Prior Future, Indicative.
|
May have |
u |
u |
Past Tense Indefinite, Potential. |
|
Might have |
a |
a |
Prior Past, Potential. |
|
Had |
u |
u |
Prior Past, Indicative. |
|
Shall |
a |
u |
Future (First Person). |
|
Will |
« |
u |
" (Second and Third Persons). |
|
Do* |
u |
a |
Present Indicative (in- tensive form). |
|
Did |
a |
u |
Past Definite, Indicative. |
|
Be |
a |
u |
Passive Voice, and is used in all the Modes and Tenses. |
* Do, with its variations, often has a very extensive signification — as, "I think as you do.1* " Edward studies more diligently than we do."
In such instances, do adopts the signification of the previous verb.
" 1 think as you think." " Edward studies more diligently than Ave study."
VERBS CONJUGATION.
79
FORMULAE OF REGULAR VERBS.
Intransitive Verb, WALK.
Present Indicative.
Past Definite.
i Simple form — 1 Walk.
\ Compound — I am Walkmg*. \ Simple —I Walked. \ Compound — I was Walking.
Present Tense, j Thou ( Give Definition.) j You [He
J Thou 1 You [He
DECLENSION.
Indicative Mode. — {Give the Definition^)
Singular. Plural.
f I walk 1 Person We walk
Past Definite. {Give Def.)
walked ~l walk $ walks
walked walked "> walked ] walked
Past Indefinite {Give Def.)
Prior Past. {Give Def.)
"I have walked 1
Thou hast walked ) g
You have walked ) '
[He has walked 3
fl had walked 1
I r
i Ye
{You They
We
Ye
You They
We
walk walk walk
walked walked walked walked
C Ye
{You
i
Future. {Give Def.
i\
Thou hadst walked ) j You had walked J [ He had walked
shall walk
Thou wilt walk )
| You will walk $
[ He will walk
f I shall have walked
Prior J Thou will have walked ) Future j You will have walked \ [He will have walked
have walked
have walked
have walked
They have walked
We had walked
Ye had walked
You had wal ked
They had walked
We shall walk Ye shall walk You shall walk They shall walk
We Ye You They
shall have walked will have walked will have walked will have walked
Potential Mode.
1 "\u.
[He
Singular, may*
walk
Present J Thouwzayart walk) present. <^ Yqu may walk j
may
walk
fl mighty walk
Past J Thou might est walk
Definite. 1 You might walk
[ He might walk
1 Person
2 «
3 "
1 "
2 "
3 "
Plural.
We may walk | Ye may walk j You may walk
They may walk
We might walk j Ye might walk [ You might walk
They might walk
* Can or must.
■f Could, would, or should.
80
PART II. ETYMOLOGY VERBS.
Singular.
Past Indef.
Prior Past.
f
I may Thou maijest You may He may
might
have vi diked have walked j have walked I have walked have walked
Thou mightest have walked You might have walked He might have walked
I:
Person We S Ye {You They We Ye You They
Plural, may have may have may have may have might have might have might have 7night have
walked walked walked walked walked walked walked walked
Present.
Past
Definite.
Subjunctive Mode.
Singular.
flf I walk 1 Person
j If Thou walk Y 9 .. *u
| If You walk J *
[if He walk 3 "
flf I walked 1 "
I If Thou walked \9 « I If You walked i *
\\i He walked 3 - "
Imperative Mode.
Plural.
If We walk 5 If Ye walk \ If You walk
If They walk
If We walked
( If Ye walked
( If You walked
If They walked
2
Plural. Walk Ye or You Do Ye or You walk
Singular. T3 {Walk' Thou)
Present. | Do Thou walk \
Infinitive Mode.
Present To walk
Past Indefinite To have walked
Participles.
Present Walking-
Compound Having Walked
Synopsis of the Regular Verb, LOVE — Active Voice. Indicative Mode.
Simple Form. Compound Form.
Present I love I am loving
Past Definite I loved I was \oving
Past Indefinite ... I have loved I have been loving
Prior Past I had loved 1 had been loving
Future I shall love I shall be loving
Prior Future I shall have loved ... I shall have been loving
Potential Mode.
Simple Form. Compound Form,.
Present I can lo^e 1 may be loving
Past Definite I could love I might be loving
Past Indefinite I can have loved . . I may have been loving
Prior Past I could have loved . . I might have been loving
VERBS CONJUGATION.
8i
Subjunctive Mode.
Present If I love Unless I be loving
Past Definite Though I loved Except I were loving
Present.
Imperative Mode.
Love thou Do thou love
Participles.
Be lov in<>
Present "Loving
Compound Having loved Having been loving
Irregular Verb, BE.
Indicative Mode.
Present.
Singular. am s Thou art ] 1 You are i
[He is :
f!
1 Person
2 "
3 "
Plural. We are Ye are You are They are
was wast j was J was
(I Past I Thou
Definite, j You [He
(1 have been
Past J Thou hast been
Indefinite. *| You have been
^ He has been
1 Person We
2 «
3 «
were
were
\ You were
They were
1 Person
2 "
3 "
Prior Past.
Future.
CI had been J Thou hadst been ] You had been l^He had been
We have been { Ye have been ( You have been
They have been
1 Person We had been
2 ^ J Ye had been
I You had been
3 " They had been
f1
1 You LHe
shall be
will will
be i be'
1 Person
2 "
3 m
We shall be
(Ye will be
( You will be
They will be
Prior
Future. 1 You l^He
Present.
/I shall have been Thou wilt have been i
will will
have been J have been '
1 Person We
2 ■ i Ye z ^You
3 " They
shall have been will have been will have been will have been
Potential Mode.
Singular. ( I may be
J Thou mayest be ) ] You may be \ [ He mav be • 4*
1 Person
! " S
Plural. We Ye You Thev
may be may be may be may be
82
PART II. ETYMOLOGY VERBS.
Singular. ♦ Plural.
{I might be 1 Person We might be
Thou mightest be | ~ {{ i Ye might be
You might be ) ( You might be
He might be 3 " They might be
Singular. Plural.
(I may have been 1 Person We may have been
Thou mayest have been ) 2 « $ Ye may have been You may have been $ \ You may have been
He may have been 3 " They may have been
Singular. Plural.
{I might have been 1 Person We might have been Thou mightest have been ) 2 « J Ye might have been You might have been \ \ You might have been
He might have been 3 " They might have been
Subjunctive Mode.
Singular. Plural.
flfl be 1 Person If we be
Present J If thou be >2 i J If ye be present. «Ifyoube M i If you be
[If he be 3 « If they be
Singular. Plural.
{If I were 1 Person If we were
If thou wert \ A u J If ye were
If you were J *■ (If you were
If he were 3 " If they were
Infinitive Mode.
Present To be
Past To have been
Participles.
Present Being
Past Been
Compound Having been
Synopsis of the Verb, LOVE — Passive Voice.
Indicative Mode.
Present 1 am loved
Past Definite I was loved
Past Indefinite I have been loved
Prior Past I had been loved
Future I shall be loved
Prior Future I shall have been loved
Potential Mode.
Present I may be loved
Past Definite I might be loved
Past Indefinite I may have been loved
Prior Past I might have been loved
VERBS CONJUGATION. 83
Subjunctive Mode.
Present . , If 1 be loved
Past Definite If I were loved
Imperative Mode.
Singular. Plural.
Present Be loved, or. Do you be loved, or
Be thou loved Be ye loved
Infinitive Mode.
Present To be loved
Past To have been loved
Participles.
Present Loved, or, being loved
• Compound Having been loved
Synopsis of the Irregular Verb, DO.
Indicative Mode.
Declarative Form. Interrogative Form.
Present 1 do Do 1 1
Past Definite I did Did I %
Past Indefinite ... I have done Have I done 1
Prior Past I had done Had I done 1
Future 1 shall do Shall I do 1
Prior Future I shall have done Shall I have done 1
Potential Mode.
Declarative Form. Interrogative Form.
Present I may do May I do ?
Past Definite I might do Might I do 1
Past Indefinite I may have done May I have done 1
Prior Past I might have done Might I have done 1
Subjunctive Mode.
Present If I do
Past Definite If I did
Imperative Mode. Present D
Infinitive Mode.
Present To do
Past To have done
Participles.
Present Doing.
Past Done
Compound Having done
84
PART II. ETYMOLOGY VERBS.
Exercises.
Let the Pupils give the Class, Voice, Mode, Tense, Person, and Num- ber of the following Verbs — and complete the sentences.
Am writing a letter. Are reading poetry. Didst see the eclipse. Had known duty. May feel the worm. Ought to study. Couldst have favored him. Thou love me. Couldst love to study.
Has walked to Boston. Hast wandered from home. Shall learn wisdom. Will improve in writing. Could recite lessons. " Canst be false to any man." Wish to see home. Wilt have returned my books. Shall have returned from Europe.
Repeat the First Person Singular of each Mode and Tense of the fol- lowing verbs :
|
Am, |
Eat, |
Neglect, |
Receive, |
|
Arise, |
w* |
Need," |
Reject, |
|
Begin, |
Go, |
Owe, |
Select, |
|
Blow, |
Hold, |
- Ought, |
Squander. |
|
Come, |
Know, |
Practice, |
Yoke, |
|
Cut, |
Lay, |
Purchase, |
Touch, |
|
Do, |
Lie, |
Quiet, |
Use, |
|
Drink, |
Make, |
Qualify, |
Wish. |
Repeat the Third Person Plural of the same.
LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS.
Present Past Def.
Abide abode
Am or Be was ,
Arise arose
Past Part. . abode .been . arisen
Awake awoke, r awaked
Bear bore, bare born
Bear (to sustain). . .bore, bare borne
Beat beat beaten, beat
Begin began began
Bend bent bent
Bereave bereft, r bereft, r
Beseech besought besought
Bid bade, bid bidden, bid
Bind bound bound
Bite bit bitten, bit
Bleed bled bled
Blow blew blown
Break broke broken
Breed bred bred
VERBS CLASSIFICATION. 85
Present. Past Def. Past Part,
Bring brought brought
Build built, r built, r
Burn burnt, r burnt, r
Burst burst burst
Buy bought bought
Cast cast cast
Catch caught caught
Chide chid chidden, chid
Choose chose chosen
Cleave cleaved, clave cleaved
Cleave clove, cleft cloven, cleft
Cling clung clung
Clothe clothed clad, r
Come came come
Cost cost cost
Crow crew, r crowed
Creep crept crept
Cut cut cut
Dare durst, r dared
Deal dealt dealt
Dig dug, r dug, r
Do did done
Draw drew drawn
Dream dreamt, r dreamt, r
Drive drove driven
Drink drank drank, drunk
Dwell dwelt, r dwelt, r
Eat ate, eat eaten
Fall fell fallen
Feed fed fed
Feel felt felt
Fight fought fought
Find found found
Flee fled fled
Fling flung flung
Fly flew flown
Forbear forbore • forborne
Forget forgot, forgot forgotten
Forsake forsook forsaken
Freeze froze frozen
Get got, gat got, gotten
Gild gilt, r gilt, r
Gird girt, r girt, r
Give gave given
Go went gone
Grave graved graven, graved
Grind ground ground
Grow grew grown
Have had had
Hang hung hung
Hear heard heard
Heave hove, r hoven, r *
86 PART II. ETYMOLOGY VERBS.
Present. Past Def. Past Part.
Hew hewed hewn, hewed
Hide hid hidden, hid
Hit hit hit
Hold held held
Hart hurt hurt
Keep kept kept
Kneel knelt, r . . kneeled, knelt
Knit knit knit
Know knew known
Lade laded laden
Lay laid laid
Lead led led
Leave left left
Lend lent lent
Let let let
Lie lay lain
Light lit, r lit, r
Loose lost lost
Make made made
Mean meant * meant
Meet met met
Mow mowed mown, r
Pay paid paid
Put put put
GLuit quit, r quit
Read read read
Rend rent rent
Rid rid rid
Ride rode rode, ridden
Ring rang, rung rung
Rise rose risen
Rive rived riven, rived
Rot rotted rotten, r
Run ran, run run
Saw sawed sawn, r
Say said said
See : . . . saw . . .* seen
Seek sought sought
Sell sold sold
Send sent sent
Set set set
Shake shook shaken
Shape shaped shapen, r
Shave shaved shaven, r
Shear sheared, r shorn, sheared
Shed . shed shed
Shine shone, r shone, r
Show showed shown, showed
Shoe shod • shod
Shoot shot shot
Shrink shrunk shrunk
Shred shred shred
VERBS CLASSIFICATION. 87
Present Past Def. Past Part.
Shut shut shut
Sing- sung, sang sung
Sink sunk sunk
Sit sat sat
Slay slew slain
Sleep slept slept
Slide slid slidden, slid
Sling slung slung
Slink slunk slunk
Slit slit, r slit, r
Smite smote smitten, smit
Sow sowed sown, r
Speak spoke, spake spoken
Speed sped sped
Spell spelt, r spelt
Spend spent spen t
Spill spilt spilt
Spin spun spun
Spit spit, spat spit
Split split split
Spread spread spread
Spring sprung, sprang sprung
Stand stood stood
Steal stole stolen
Stick stuck stuck
Sting stung stung
Stride strode, strid stridden
Strike struck struck, stricken
String strung strung
Strive strove striven
Strow, strew strowed, strewed strown, strewn, r
Swear swore sworn
Sweat sweat, r sweat
Sweep swept swept
Swell swelled swollen, r
Swim swum, swam swum
Swung swung swung
Take took taken
Teach taught taught
Tear tore torn
Tell told told
Think thought thought
Thrive thrived, throve thriven
Throw threw thrown
Thrust thrust thrust
Tread trod trodden, trod
Wax waxed waxen, r
Wear wore worn
Weave wove woven, wove
Weep wept wept
Wet wet wet
Win , won won
88 PART II.- — ETYMOLOGY—VERBS.
Present. Past Def. Past Part
Wind wound wound
Work worked, wrought worked, wrought
Wring wrung, r wrung, r
Write wrote written, writ
Obs. 1.— Words in the above list marked r, are sometimes used as Kegular Yerbs. Those written in Italics are not much used by modern writers.
Obs. 2. — A Verb often has a Preposition or other prefix placed before it ; the Conjugation, however, remains the same.
EXAMPLES.
Take took taken.
Mistake, raz'stook -mistaken.
Overtake overtook overtaken.
Rem.— The class should repeat this list in concert — prefixing to each verb one of the Personal Pronouns. For the Third Person a Noun may- be used— thus :
I write I wrote I have written having written.
You tread you trod you have trod having trod.
He sweeps he swept he has swept having swept.
John does John did John has done having done.
Men sit men sat men have sat having sat.
Some hear some heard some are heard having heard.
They see they saw they are seen being seen.
To the Transitive Verbs, Objects may be attached — thus :
We saw wood we sawed wood we have sawn wood.
Birds build nests birds built nests birds have built nests.
Other variations in these concert exercises may be profitable — such as placing the woids new, to-day, &c, after the Present — yesterday, &c, after the Past Tense Definite — and heretofore, recently, &c. after the Past Tense Indefinite. Thus —
I begin to-day I began yesterday I have begun recently.
The wind blows now. .the wind blew then... .the wind has blown often.
UNIPERSONAL VERBS.
Deft 88t A Verb used only as the predicate of the Indefinite Pronoun a it" is called A Unipersonai Verb.
EXAMPLES.
It snows, Tt becomes,
It rains, Tt behoves,
It seems, It is evident.
Methiriks is an anomalous form of the verb think.
ADVERBS CLASSIFICATION. 89
ADVERBS.
Rem. — As actions are modified by circumstances, and as qualities vary in degree, so words expressing actions, and words denoting qualities, are modified by other words, denoting time, place, degree, manner, cause, <$*c. Hence,
Def# 99. A word used to modify the significa- tion of a Verb, an Adjective, or another modifier, is An Adverb.
Obs. 1. — Adverbs are of great utility in rendering the lan- guage concise and spirited. They are commonly substituted for Phrases.
EXAMPLES.
" Brilliantly" for " With a brilliant appearance."
" Solemnly" for " In a solemn manner."
" Vainly" for "In a vain attempt."
" Here" for "In this place."
" Now" for "At this time."
" Brilliantly the glassy waters mirror back his smiles."
" Solemnly he took the earthly state."
" Vainly we offer each ample oblation."
" Here sleeps he now."
Obs. 2. — An Adverb is often used as a representative for the sentence or phrase to which it belongs.
Examples — " While there we visited the Prison."
" W/iile we -were at Auburn we visited the Prison." " Since then we have been friends." "Since that time we have been friends."
Obs. 3.— An Adverb often modifies a Phrase.
Examples — We went almost to Boston.
Wilkes sailed quite around the world. " Engraved expressly for the Ladies' Garland."
Obs. 4. — Adverbs may consist of Words, Phrases, and Sen- tences.
1. A Word — The very best men sometimes commit faults.
2. A Phrase — uIn the beginning, God created the heaven and the earth."
3. A Sentence — " They kneeled before they fought"
Note. — Some Sentences are properly Adverbial, when they perform the office of an Adverb — although in strict construction, they may be Principal Sentences.
There comes, methinks, amid the deaf 'ning roar, a still, small voice.
Equivalent — there comes, apparently, a still, small voice.
90 PAET II. ETYMOLOGY ADVERBS.
CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS.
Rem. — The classes of Adverbs are very numerous — the following are the most important :
1. Time Now, then, always, to-morrow.*
2. Place Here, there, hither, back.
3. Degree More, very, exceedingly, so.
4. Manner . . . .So, as, thus, carefully.
5. Cause Hence, therefore.
6. Interrogation Why ? How ? Wherefore ? Whence ?
7. Number .... Often, once, twice.
8. Doubt Perhaps, probably, possibly.
9. Affirmation . . Yes, certainly, surely. ] 0. Negation . . . No, nay, not.
11. Means. ..." Scale the heavens] by strides of human
wisdom."
12. Effect . . . . " [It shrinks] to nothing in the grasp." — Young.
MODIFICATION.
Prill* Some Adverbs are modified, like Adjectives, by comparison.
EXAMPLES.
Pos. Cornp. Superl.
Soon Sooner Soonest.
Wisely More wisely Most wisely.
Obs. — Some Adverbs are used only for Euphony.
Examples — There are no idlers here.
" It was now, too, mid- winter."
" HP en now, where Alpine solitudes ascend, I sit me down, a pensive hour to spend ; And, placed on high, above the storm's career, Look downward, where a hundred realms appear."
Now Modifies " sit" — denoting time; hence, an Adverb.
s^mdesfsc'end. \ Modifies " ^"-denoting place ) hence, an Adverb.
* To-morrow, to-day, yesterday, &c., are properly called Adverbs, when the phrases for which they are substituted would be used adverbially. As, " I go to-morrow." " When V' u On the morrow."
ADVERBS EXERCISES. 9 1
A PtrspInd.h°Ur } Modifies "sit"— denoting c«?^; hence, an Adverb. On high Modifies " placed" — denoting place ; hence, an Adverb.
career °rm S ( Modifies " placed" — denoting place ; hence, an Adverb.
Downward Modifies " look" — denoting place; hence, an Adverb.
reahns%ppear! i Modines " look"— denoting place ; hence, an Adverb.
Exercises.
t^T Let the following Adverbs be classified and their Modification given :
How, Already, In a moment,
Not, Quickly, In flower,
There, Vilely, O'er the ruins,
Soon, Eagerly, At pile.
" Noiselessly around, From perch to perch the solitary bird
Passes."
"How is it possible not to feel a profound sense of the respon- sibleness of this republic to all future ages."
" In a moment he flew quickly past."
u For there the shield of the mighty is vilely cast awayP
" Thy pencil glows in every flower ; Where Sense can reach, or Fancy rove, From hill to field, from field to grove, Across the wave, around the sky, There's not a spot, nor deep, nor high, Where the Creator has not trod, And left the footsteps of a God."
u Eternal Hope ! when yonder spheres sublime Pealed their first notes to sound the march of Time, Thy joyous youth began — but not to fade : When all the sister planets have decayed ; When, wrapt in fire, the realms of ether glow, And Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below; Thou, undismayed, shait o'er the ruins smile, And light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile !"
92 PART II. ETYMOLOGY PREPOSITIONS.
" Earth keeps me here Awhile ; yet I shall leave it, and shall rise On fairer wings than thine, to skies more clear."
Here Modifies " keeps" — denoting place ; hence, Adverb of Place.
Awhile Modifies " keeps" — denoting time; hence, Adverb of Time.
On wings. . .Modifies "rise" — denoting means ; hence, Adverb of Means. (" On fairer wings than thine," is the Modified Adverb.)
Than thine .. Modifies "fairer" — denoting degree; hence, Adverb of De- gree.
To skies . . . .Modifies " rise" — denoting place ; hence, Adverb of Place. (" To skies more clear," is the Modified Adverb.)
More Modifies " clear" — denoting degree; hence, Adverb of Degree.
uHow much better satisfied he is /"
How Modifies " much ;" hence, an Adverb.
Much Modifies " better;" hence, an Adverb.
Better Modifies " satisfied ;" hence, an Adverb.
PREPOSITIONS.
Def. 100. A word used to introduce a phrase, showing the relation of its object to the word which the phrase qualifies, is
A Preposition.
LIST.
A "Wild winds and mad waves drive the vessel a wreck."
About " We walked about town."
Above " There is a ferry above the falls."
Across " Across the lake, through bush and brake."
Aboard " They came aboard ship."
Aboard of " We succeeded in getting aboard of hex"
After " He that cometh after me."
Against " He that is not for me, is against me."
Along " Winds that run along the summits of their hills."
Amid " We stowed them amidships"
Amidst " Amidst the mists, he thrusts his fists."
Among " He became a great favorite among the boys.
Amongst " We made diligent search amongst the rubbish."
Around " With his martial cloak around him."
As " That England can spare from her service such men as
him." — Lord Brougham.
Aslant "It struck aslant the beam."
Astride " He sat astride the beam."
As for " As for me and my house."
As to " As to that, I have nothing to say,"
PREPOSITIONS— CLASSIFICATION. 93
At ..... . " He was at work, at noon."
Athwart " The dolphin leaped athwart her bows."
Before " He stood before the people."
Behind " Behind a rick of barley."
Below " The captain was below decks."
Beneath " Beneath the mouldering ruins."
Beside " Beside its embers, red and clear."
Besides " Besides punishment inflicted on this account."
Between " Between whom, perfect friendship has existed."
Betwixt " There is no difference betwixt them/'
Beyond " Beyond all doubt,"
But " All went but me."
But for " And but for these vile guns."
By "To sail by Ephesus." " They stood by the cross,"
Concerning " Concerning whom I have before written."
Despite of " Despite of all opposition."
Devoid of " You live devoid of peace."
During " During the present administration."
Ere " And ere another evening's close."
Except " Except these bonds."
Excepting " Excepting that bad habit, the teacher was faultless."
For " For me your tributary stores combine."
Prom " Playful children, just* let loose from school."
Erom among . . . . " From among thousand celestial ardors." Prom between. . ." He came from between the lakes." From off M This lady fly I take from off the grass."
In " In the beginning."
Instead of " Instead of the thorn, shall come up the fir."
In lieu of " She has that sum in lieu of dower."
Into "Into these glassy eyes, put light."
Like " An hour like this, may well display the emptiness of
human grandeur."
IN ear " His residence is near the church."
Next " Plural nominatives should be placed next their verbs."
Nigh " Come not nigh me."
Notwithstanding." Notwithstanding this, we remain friends."
Of il Of the arts of peace."
Off " He fell off the. bows."
On " On a bed of green sea-flowers."
Opposite " Our friend lives opposite the Exchange."
Over " High (i'er their heads the weapons swung."
Out of. " Out of the cooling brine to leap."
Past " We came past Avon."
Per " Twelve hundred dollars per annum."
Previous to " Previous to this, his character has been good.
Respecting " Nothing was known respecting him."
Round " He went round the parish, making complaints."
94 PART II. ETYMOLOGY PREPOSITIONS.
Since " Since Saturday, he has not been seen."
Save " All, save this little nook of land."
Saving " With habits commendable, saving only this — he chews
tobacco."
Through " Dian's crest floats through the azure air."
Throughout " JNor once, throughout that dismal night."
Than " Than whom none higher sat."
Till " He labored hard till noon."
To " We purpose to go to Rochester to-day.
Touching " Touching these things, whereof 1 am accused."
Towards " They returned 1 towards evening."
Under " Then was my horse killed under me."
Underneath " And underneath his feet, he cast the darkness."
Unlike " Unlike all that I had ever before seen."
Until " We shall not return until Saturday."
Unto " Unto him who rules the invisible armies of eternity."
Up " The whole fleet was sailing up the river."
Upon " Upon the word."
Via " This stage is for Buffalo, via Batavia.''
With " With cautious steps, and slow."
Within " Peace be within these walls."
Without " Without it, what is man V1
Worth "He possessed an estate, worth five thousand pounds."
Obs. 1. — The Antecedent term of relation — the word which the Phrase, introduced by a Preposition, qualifies — may be a
Noun The house of God.
Pronoun. . . Who of us shall go 1 I care not which of you. Adjective . . It is good for nothing.
Verb We love to study, we delight in improvement.
Participle. ..Jumping from a precipice. Adverb He is too wise to err.
Obs. 2. — The Antecedent term of the relation expressed by a Preposition, is sometimes understood."
" O refuge Meet for fainting pilgrims [ ] on this desert way."
.Note. — In the above and similar examples, the ellipsis of the ante- cedent word need not be supplied in parsing, unless the sense plainly re- quires it. But the phrase may be parsed as qualifying the word which its Antecedent would qualify, if expressed.
" Which flung its purple o'er his path to heaven."
Here the phrase " to heaven," properly modifies leading, or a word of similar office, understood. But " leading," modified by this phrase, would qualify "path." Hence the phrase, " to heaven " — as a representative of the whole phrase " leading to heaven"— may be attached to ft path."
PREPOSITIONS CLASSIFICATION. 95
Obs. 3. — Prepositions introducing Substantive and Indepen- dent Phrases, have no Antecedents.
Examples — "As for me and my house, we will serve the Lord."
" And, on the whole, the sight was very painful." — Todd. " O for a lodge in some vast wilderness." — Cowper.
Obs. 4. — The Consequent term of relation may be,
A Word . . . . " He stood before the people."
A Phrase. . . . " Time, spent in receiving impertinent visits.11
A Sentence . . " And cries of — live for ever — struck the skies."
Obs. 5. — The Consequent term of relation — Object — is some- times understood.
Examples — '■' And the waves are white below [ ]."
" These crowd around [ ] to ask him of his health."
Many grammarians call these Prepositions, Adverbs. This is true, with this modification — they are Prepositions, having their objects under- stood. But, as the Phrases of which they form parts, are always used adverbially, the Prepositions — as representatives of their Phrases, are Adverbs. Hence, when thus used, each Preposition performs a double office — Prepositional, as leader of the Phrase — Adverbial, as representa- tive of the Phrase.
Obs. 6. — The Preposition is often understood — generally when its Phrase follows verbs of giving, selling, coming, &c. Examples — Mary gave [ ] me a rose — Mary gave a rose to me.
I sold [ ] Mr. Shepard my wheat — sold wheat to Shepard. William has gone from home to-day — he will come [ home to-morrow.
These crowd around. Mary gave me a rose. " Me " and " around " are — in the same sense, and by the same rule — Adverbs, viz. : as representatives of the Adverbial Phrases to which they severally belong. As words, simply, " me " is a Pronoun — object of to understood ; '■ around " is a Preposition — showing a relation of '■ crowd " and '• him," understood.
Obs. 7. — Prepositions are sometimes incorporated with their Objects. Examples — I go a-fshing. He fell a-sleep. Come a-board.
Obs. 8. — Prepositions are sometimes used in predication with Verbs.
Examples — Its idle hopes are o'er. That was not thought of.
Obs. 9. — A Preposition commonly indicates the office of the Phrase which it introduces.
In, on, under, above, &c, indicate a relation of place, including the idea of rest.
William's hat is in the hall, on the stool, under the table.
96 PART II.— ETYMOLOGY— PREPOSITIONS.
From, to, into, through, out of, &c, indicate a relation of place, with the idea of motion.
u We came from New York to Boston."
Of generally indicates a relation of possession,
" The lay of the last minstrel" — the last minstreVs lay.
As, like, than, &c, indicate a relation of comparison.
" Thou hast been wiser all the while than me" — Southey's Letters.
During, till, since, &c, indicate a relation or time,
" We have vacation during the whole month of July."
" Since Saturday, we have not seen him."
But, as the kind of relation expressed by a given Preposition is not uniform, no perfect classification can be made.
' For other observations on Prepositions, see Part HI — Prepositions.
Exercises.
u Where streams of earthly joy exhaust less rise?1
Of Shows a relation of " streams " and " joy." . . Hence5 a Preposition.
u O refuge Meet for fainting pilgrims. ' '
For . . Shows a relation of " meet" and " pilgrims." . . Hence, a Preposition.
" On the plains, And spangled fields, and in the mazy vales, The living throngs of earth before Him fall, With thankful hymns, receiving from His hands Immortal life and gladness."
On Shows a relation of [existing, understood, which qualifies]
" throngs/' and " plains and fields." Hence, ... a Preposition.
In Shows a relation of [existing, understood, which
qualifies] " throngs" and " vales." Hence, a Preposition.
Of Shows a relation of " throngs" and " earth" ... .a Preposition.
Before Shows a relation of " fall" and " him." Hence, a Preposition.
With Shows a relation of [worshiping, or some equiva- lent word understood, which qualifies] " throngs," and " hymns." Hence, a Preposition.
ki The chief fault of Coleridge lies in the style, which has been justly objected to on account of its obscurity, general turgidness of diction, and a profusion of new-coined double epithets."
u Southey, among all our living poets, stands aloof, and i alone in his glory.' For he alone of them all has adventured to illus- trate, in poems of magnitude, the different characters, customs, and manners of nations."
CONJUNCTIONS.
97
CONJUNCTIONS.
Rem. — It should be remembered that Prepositions connect words by showing a relation.
Another class of words is used simply to connect words and phrases, similar in construction, and to introduce sentences. Hence,
Del. 101 # A word used to join Words or Phrases,
or to introduce a Sentence, is
A Conjunction.
Examples — Homer and Henry have perfect lessons, because they study diligently.
Rem. — In this example, " and" connects" Homer" and " Henry" — two words having the same construction — and " because" introduces an Aux- iliary Sentence.
List. — The following are the principal words which are com- monly used as Conjunctions. And,
As well as, Also, Again, After, Besides, But, Further, Furthermore, However, Howsoever, Howbeit, Likewise, Moreover, Nay, Nor, Yet,
Rem. — A few other words are sometimes used as Conjunctions. Obs. 1. — Conjunctions used to introduce Auxiliary Sentences, and some others, constitute also an index or type of the office of the sentence which they introduce.
Examples — " //"he repent, forgive him."
" As you journey, sweetly sing."
In these examples, " if," renders its sentence conditional: — "as," indi- cates that its sentence (" you journey") modifies " sing," in respect to time.
Note. — When, As, Since, and many other conjunctions used to introduce Auxiliary Sentences are called, by some Grammarians, Conjunctive Ad- verb*. "And the rest will I set in order ichen I come." We are told that
|
As, |
Also. |
|
Because, |
Although, |
|
Before, |
Notwithstanding, |
|
Being, |
Though, |
|
Except, |
Both, |
|
Else, |
Either, |
|
For, |
Neither, |
|
If, |
Nov/, |
|
Incase, |
Or, |
|
Inasmuch as, |
Otherwise, |
|
Lest, |
So, |
|
Provided, |
Still, |
|
Since, |
Than, |
|
Unless, |
Then, |
|
When, |
Therefore, |
|
Whilst, |
Thus, |
|
While, |
Wherefore. |
98 PART 11.— -ETYMOLOGY-— CONJUNCTIONS.
" when," in the above example, is an Adverb of Time, relating to the two verbs " Avill set," and " come."
We are also told (and properly), that Adverbs of time are those which answer to the question " when ?"
But does " when," jn the above example, a answer to the question when ?" Certainly not. Then it cannot be an Adverb of Time. But the Auxiliary Sentence, i: when I come,7' does " answer to the question v:hen." It tells when " I will set the rest in order." Hence the sentence, " when I come," is an Adverb of Time ; and the word " when" — used only to introduce that sentence — connecting it to " will set," is a Conjunction. [See the preceding observation.]
Obs. 2. — The conjunction nor generally performs a secondary office — that of a negative Adverb —
" Man wants but little here below, Nor wants that little long."
In this example, " nor" introduces the sentence, and also gives it a negative signification.
The conjunction " lest" has sometimes a similar construction.
"Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty."
Obs. 3. — Double Conjunctions. — Two conjunctions are some- times used to introduce the same sentence.
Examples — u It seems as if they were instructed by some secret instinct." " Arid yet, fair bow, no fabling dreams."
As though, but that, and some other words, are often used as double conjunctions.
Obs. 4. — But, when an Auxiliary Sentence precedes a Princi- pal Sentence, the conjunctions introducing them are not to be regarded as double, although they may be in juxtaposition. [See this Obs.]
[For other observations, the student is referred to Part III. Conjunctions.]
Exercices. " God created the heaven and the earth."
And Connects " heaven" and " earth ;" hence a Conjunction.
" Temperance and frugality promote health and secure happiness"
And Connects " temperance" and " frugality ;" hence, a Conjunction.
And Connects " promote" and " secure ;" hence a Conjunction.
"And the eyes of the sleepers waxed deadly and chill."
And Introduces a sentence ; hence a Conjunction.
And Connects " deadly" and " chill ," hence a Conjunction.
CONJUNCTIONS EXCLAMATIONS* 99
"And oft have I the pai7iful lesson conned.
When disappointment mocked my wooing heart, Still of its own delusion weakly fond, ' And from forbidden pleasures loth to part, Though shrinking oft beneath correction's deepest smart."
And Introduces a Principal Sentence ; hence a Conjunction.
When Introduces an Auxiliary Sentence (which modifies " conned" —
denoting time) ; hence a Conjunction.
And Connects " fond" and " both ;" hence a Conjunction.
Though . . Connects " both" and " shrinking ;" hence a Conjunction.
EXCLAMATION.
Def. 102. A word used to express a sudden or intense emotion, is
An Exclamation.
Obs. 1. — Exclamations may consist—
1. Of Letters— as, 01 Oh I Ah I Lot
2. Of Words— commonly used as Nouns, Adjectives,
Verbs, and Adverbs— as, Wo I Strange ! Hark ! Really ! Behold ! Shocking !
3. Of Phrases — -For shame !
4. Of Sentences — O, Ephraim I how can I give thee up ! Obs. 2. — Exclamations are followed by- Words—4' 0, Liberty !" " Ah, the treasure !" Phrases — " 0, for a lodge in some vast wilderness !" Sentences — -" 0, bear me to some solitary cell -!"
Rem. — The term Exclamation is preferred to Interjection, as being more appropriate to its office.
Exclaim — " to cry out." This we do with the rise of Exclamations. Interject — " to cast between." We very seldom cast these words between others — they are generally placed before other words.
WORDS OF EUPHONY.
Deft 103« A word used chiefly for the sake of sound, is A Word of Euphony.
Rem. — [For the various uses of Words of Euphony, see Part I., page 10.] Obs. — Words of Euphony may be such as are commonly used
100 PART II. ETYMOLOGY VARIABLE WORDS.
as any other "part of speech." In parsing, a word is to be called a Word of Euphony, only when its chief office is Rhetorical.
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW.
Adverbs — Prepositions — Conjunctions — Exclamations. What is an Adverb 1 Why are they used 1 For what are they often substituted 1 Adverbs may consist of what 1 What are the classes of Adverbs 7 Are Adverbs Modified 1 In what respect 1 When is an Adverb used only for Euphony 7 What is a Preposition 1 What is the " Antecedent term of relation" 1 The Antecedent may consist of what 1 Is it always expressed ? Examples 1 When is it not to be expressed *? What is the " Consequent term of relation'"? The Consequent may consist of what 1 Is it always expressed ? Examples 1
When not expressed, what offices does the Preposition perform 1 Is the Preposition always expressed 1 What is a Conjunction 1
What Conjunctions are used only to introduce Auxiliarv Sentences 1 What is said of the Conjunctions nor, lest, fyc. ? What are double Conjunctions % What is an Exclamation 1 Exclamations may consist of what 1 Exclamations are followed by what 7 What is a word of Euphony 1
WORDS VARYING IN THEIR ETYMOLOGY.
Rem. — Words are similar in Orthoepy, when they are pronounced with the same sound of the same letter. Examples — There, their ; all, awl.
They are similar in Orthography, when they are formed by the same letters, similarly arranged.
Examples — Read, read; ex' tract, extract'.
They are similar in Etymology, when they perform a similar office in the construction of a phrase or sentence.
But it is plain that words similar in Orthoepy differ in their Orthogra- phy—and words of similar Orthograprry perform widely different offices in different connections.
^ It should always be remembered by the scholar, that the office of a word, — not its shape — determines its Etymology.
VARIABLE OFFICES OF WORDS. 101
Among the words of similar Orthography that differ in their Etymology, are the following :
A Adj Webster wrote a Dictionary-Walker wrote another.
A Prep Wild winds and mad waves drive the vessel a wreck.
About Prep He wandered about the country.
About Adv He is about fifty years of age.
Above Prep He stands above us.
Above Adv He is above forty years of age.
After Prep He that cometh after me.
After Conj He came after you left.
After Adj He was in the after part of the ship.
As Prep To redeem such a rebel as me. — Wesley.
As Conj Just as the twig is bent the tree 's inclined.
As Adv Nature, as far as art can do it, should be imitated.
As Pron Such as 1 have give I unto thee.
Before Prep He stood before the people.
Before Conj They kneeled before they fought.
Both Adj Situated on both sides of the river.
Both Pron Lepidus flatters both, of both is flattered.
Both Conj And now he is both loved and respected.
But Prep All but me were rewarded.
But Conj I go — but I return.
But Adv If we go, we can but die.
But Verb I cannot but rejoice at his unexpected prosperity.
Ere Prep And ere another evening's close.
Ere Conj And ere we could arrive [at] the point proposed.
For Prep They traveled /or pleasure.
For Conj He cannot be a scholar, for he will not study.
Like Prep Nature all blooming like thee.
Like Adj Like causes produce like effects.
Near Adj At the near approach of the star of day.
Near Prep We live nea.r the springs.
Near Adv Books were never near so numerous.
Neither . . . Adj He can debate on neither side of the question.
Neither . . . Pron We saw neither of them.
Neither . . . Conj The boy could neither read nor write.
Next Adj The next generation.
Next Prep Adjectives should be placed next their substantives.
Off Adj The off ox should keep the furrow.
Off Prep William fell off the load.
Only Adj Virtue only makes us happy.
Only Adv Only observe what a swarm is running after her.
Opposite . . Adj On the opposite bank of the river.
Opposite . . Prep We stood opposite the Exchange.
Past Adj A past transaction.
Past Prep It was past mid-day.
Round Adj Like the round ocean.
Round Prep Flung round, the bier.
Still Adj Still waters reflect a milder light.
Still Adv Still struggling, he strives to stand.
Still Conj Still, the reflection has troubled me.
Since Prep Since yesterday, we have taken nothing.
102 PART II. ETYMOLOGY— OBSERVATIONS.
Since Conj Since I cannot go, I will be contented here.
So Adj Solomon was wise — we are not so.
So Adv So calm, so bright.
Than Conj She is more nice than wise.
Than Prep Than whom none higher sat.
Than Pron We have more than heart can wish.
That Adj That book is mine.
That Pron. Rel. Him that cometh unto me.
That Pron. Adj. Forgive me my foul murder'? that cannot be
That Conj I am glad that he has lived thus long.
Then Adv Then, when I am thy captive, talk of chains.
Then Conj Then I'll look up.
Then Pron Till then.
Till . . Prep They labored hard till night.
Till Conj Till I come, give attention to reading.
Until Prep From morn, even until night.
Until Conj Until the day dawn.
What Adj At what hour did you arrive 7
What. . . . .Rel. Pron. What Reason weaves, by Passion is undone.
What Inter. Pron What does it avail 1
What Exclama . . What ! is thy servant a dog !
Within . . . Prep To inscribe a circle within a circle.
Within . . . Adj Received on the zoithin bond, five hundred dollars.
OBSERVATIONS ON SOME OF THE FOREGOING WORDS.
As When this word introduces a sentence, it is properly
called a Conjunction. Example — " As ye journey, sweetly sing."
When it introduces a phrase, it is a preposition, and is then generally equivalent to the preposition for.
Examples — " He gave me this as the latest news from the army."
" I am always fearful, lest I should tell you that for news,
with which you are well acquainted." — Cowper. " For example."
" I mention these as a few exemplifications." u And melancholy marked him. for her own." — Gray.
" They will seek out some particular herb which they do
not use as food." — Taylor. "His friends were counted as his enemies." — Sigourney. "All mark thee/<?r a prey." — Cowper.
The above examples clearly indicate that as is sometimes a Preposition.
Rem. — Many Grammarians insist that as, in the above and similar examples, " must be a Conjunction, because, in most cases, it connects words in apposition.
The same is true of other Prepositions.
Examples — In the city of New York.
VARIABLE OFFICES OF WORDS. 103
u thy shadowy hand was seen
Writing thy name of Death." — Pollock. I thought you an honest man. I took you for an honest man. All, old and young, went. All, from the oldest to the youngest, went. { And cries of — live forever — struck the skies."
We do not claim that these examples contain words precisely in apposition — as much so, however, as any cases claimed to be connected by as.
As — is often used (by ellipsis of one or more words) as a Pronoun. [See Rem. on than, below.]
But. . . . This word — like most Conjunctions — is derived from a Saxon Verb signifying u except" — " set aside" — 4- fail," &c. [See Webster 's Improved Grammar.] In the list above given, the word retains its original significa- tion and office.
Examples — " I cannot but rejoice."
I cannot fail — omit to rejoice.
Here a but " is a Yerb — Potential Mode — and u rejoice " is a Verb — Infinitive Mode, depending on "but."
But is also used instead of the words, if it were not.. 11 And but for these vile guns, he would himself have been a soldier."
Like . . . When this word qualifies a word, it is an Adjective — when it represents its noun, it is an Adjective Pronoun. But when it shows a relation of two words, it is a Pre- position.
Examples — " These armies once lived, and breathed, and felt like us." — Morgan. " An hour like this, may well display the emptiness of hu- man grandeur."
Than . . This word always expresses comparison, and comparison implies a relation. When this relation is expressed by words, than is a Preposition. When it is expressed by sentences ; and when words, phrases, or sentences, are merely connected by it, it is a Conjunction. The use of it as a Preposition is sanctioned by good authority — ancient and modern.
Examples — " They are stronger than lions."
u Thou shalt have no other Gods than me." — Com. Prayer.
" But in faith, she had been wiser than me." — Southey.
" Their works are more perfect than those of men." — Taylor.
104 PART IL ETYMOLOGY OBSERVATIONS.
Many words are used as Prepositions or Conjunctions, accord- ing as they introduce Phrases or Sentences.
Examples — John arrived before me. John arrived before I did. John arrived a little earlier than I [than me], John arrived a little earlier than I did. John arrived as soon as I [as me]. John arrived as soon as I did.
" Before me" ... Is a Phrase, used to modify " arrived ;" hence,, an Adverb. 11 Before I did".. Is a Sentence, used to modify " arrived ;" hence, an Adverb.
u Than I" Is a Phrase, used to modify " arrived ;" hence, an Adverb.
" Than I did" . . Is a Sentence, used to modify " arrived ;" hence, an Adverb.
" As I" Is a Phrase, used to modify " arrived ;" hence, an Adverb.
" As I dtd" Is a Sentence, used to modify " arrived ;" hence, an Adverb.
Of the many words thus used as Prepositions and Conjunc- tions, custom allows two — as and than — to be followed by Pro- nouns in the Nominative form.
Examples — " Thou art wiser than I."*
Than is also used as a Pronoun, when it is the subject or object of a Verb ; as — " He does no more than is done by the rabbit." " Than," in this example, is the subject of " is done" — hence, a Pronoun. But in this and similar examples, it may become a Preposition by supplying the ellipsis ; as — " He does no more than [that which] is done by the rabbit." This is probably the more correct rendering.
That... This word is primarily an Adjective. But it is also used as a Pronoun. And, in consequence of the ob- scurity of an ellipsis (which may be generally supplied), it is often used as a Conjunction. Examples—" He demanded that payment should be made." This may be resolved into two sentences. " Payment should be made." " He demanded that."
Here " that" is the object of " demanded," and is substituted for the whole of the former sentence. But, as the sense is not
* Shall we — as some Grammarians insist — call " than" a Conjunction, and require the "ellipsis to be supplied'?" Thou art wiser than 1 am wiser ! T/wu art wiser than I am wise 1
Shall the modification of one word determine the etymology of another connected with it 1 Should not rather the oifice of each word determine its etymology, and the etymologv thus determined, determine the form of another word depending on it for sense 1
VARIABLE OFFICES OF WORDS. 105
I
obscured, and as a perplexing tautology is thereby obviated, I prefer to call it a Conjunction. It is commonly used to intro- duce an Auxiliary Sentence — and when it follows a Transitive Verb, the Auxiliary is the logical object of the Phrase or Sen- tence. (See Diagram 24, page 32.)
Worth . . Worth indicates value — and value implies a relation — ■ and relation of words is commonly expressed by a Preposition. Example — " He possessed an estate worth five hundred pounds per annum." " He has an annuity of five hundred pounds."
This word is used also as a Noun. Example — " He was a man of great worth."
So The word so, is commonly used as an Adverb. But
it is often used as a substitute for a Word, a Phrase, or a Sentence.
Examples — You are industrious — not so.
John has become a good scholar. So 1 predicted.
It is sometimes a Conjunction used for if.
Examples — " I'll frown, and be perverse, and say thee nay, So thou wilt woo." — Juliet.
THE TWOFOLD OFFICE OF SOME WOEDS.
Obs. — Some words perform, at the same time, two distinct offices — a 'primary and a secondary office.
" The surging billows and the gamboling storms Come, crouching, to his feet." Here " surging" — being derived! "Crouching" — being derived from
from the verb surge, and partaking of the nature of that verb by denot- ing a particular kind or mode of action — is a modification of a Verb — a Participle. But, because it is here used as descriptive of " billows" — denoting a condition of billows — it is an Adjective. And this being the principal -use of the word in this con- nection, we call it a Verbal Adjec- tive. ! an Adverb.
The same remarks apply to "gam- j boling," as descriptive of "storms." !
5*
the verb crouch, and partaking of the nature of that verb by denoting a particular kind or mode of action — is a modification of a Verb — a Par- ticiple. But, because it is here used to modify "come" — denoting the manner of the action expressed by that word — it is an Adverb. And, this being the principal use of the word in this connection, we call it
106
PART II. ETYMOLOGY OBSERVATIONS.
We use Rice's gold pens."
Here the word " gold," being the name of a metal, is a Noun. But, because it is here used to indicate a kind of pen [not with respect to its shape or size, but] with respect to its material, it is an Adjective. And this last, being its principal office, is the office in which it is recognized — and we parse it accord- ingly. The Noun becomes an Ad- jective.
The word "Rice's" (omitting the 7s) is a name — hence a Noun. Bat, because it is here used to indi- cate a kind of pen — not with re- spect to ownership, for Rice does not own it, bat [partly with respect to its shape or size, and also] with respect to the manufactory at which it was made, and, by inference, the quality — it is an Adjective. And this last, being its principal office, is the office in which it is recognized — and we parse it accordingly. The Noun becomes an Adjective.
Nor — composed of not and other — retains the offices of its elements.
"Nor will I at my hunrble lot repine."
Here " nor" — being used to modify " repine" — is an Adverb of Nega- tion. But, because it introduces a Sentence, additional to a former Sen- tence, it is a Conjunction : like many other conjunctions, it indicates the office of the sentence which it introduces, making it negative.
Obs. — Some words perform an individual office, and at the same time a representative office.
1. Bring hither that book. ) '■&■„„* JZ\^*. „n„+^„^ % Bring to** that book. [E^SJe^ '
3. Bring me that book. ) eacn correct-
In the examples above, u Hither" modifies I " bring ;" hence, it is | an Adverb.
1 To me" modifies "bring;" hence, it is an Adverb.
[To] " me" modifies " bring;" hence, it is an Adverb.
" Me," in the third example, as a representative for the Phrase (to me) of which it is a part, is an Adverb. But, being used for a Noun, it is a Pronoun ; and, as the object of the phrase, is in the Objective Case.
" The captain had gone below."
" Below" Shows a relation of " had gone" to deck understood.
Hence, it is a Preposition. " Below [deck]" Modifies <{ had gone" (denoting place). Hence, it is an
Adverb. " Below," As a rep?-ese?itative of its (Adverbial) Phrase, modifies
" had gone" (denoting place). Hence, it is an Adverb. For farther illustrations, see Obs. 5 and 6, page 95.
Rem. — A careful examination of the genius of the English language will disclose the fact, that a great majority of words perform at the same time two or more distinct offices. The Rule to be observed in parsing is,* that a word should be parsed according to its principal office in the sentence.
DIAGRAMS THEIR OFFICES. 107
PriiL " The office of a word in a Sentence de- termines its place in the Diagram.7' Then
CD
Obs. — When a Sentence is properly placed in Diagram, the young pupil can easily determine the office (and consequently the class) of each word, and its most important modifications. Thus in the Diagram above, 1 and 25 occupy the place of Nouns or Pronouns, which must be in the Nominative Case.
2, 7, 11, and 26, are Verbs — 2, 11, and 26, are Transitive — 7 is Intransitive.
3 and 12 are Nouns or Pronouns, and must be in the Ob- jective Case.
22 and 16 may be Nouns, Pronouns, or Infinitive Verbs, and are Objects of Prepositions.
4, 5, 13, 14, 20, are Adjectives.
8, 9, are Adverbs.
17, 1 8, 19, 23, 24, are Adjectives— if 22, 16, are Nouns or Pronouns. They are Adverbs — if 22, 16, are Infinitive Verbs.
6 and x are Relative Pronouns — 6 is in the Nominative Case — x is in the Objective Case.
6 to 19, inclusive, constitute an Adjective Sentence, which describes (1.)
(25. 26, x.) constitute an Adjective Sentence, which describes (22.)
(21, 22, 23, 24,) and (15, 16, 17, 18, 19,) constitute Phrases— and, because they are attached to 3 and 12, they are Adjectives. 21 and 15 are Prepositions
0 and 10 are Conjunctions — 0 introduces a Sentence — 10 connects two words.
The Sentence to which this Diagram is applicable is Complex. The Principal Sentence is Simple — Transitive — the Subject of which is qualified by two Words and one Sentence — the Object is qualified by one Word and one Phrase.
108 PART II. ETYMOLOGY EXERCISES.
The Sentence "which is Auxiliary to the Subject of the Prin- cipal Sentence is a Compound Mixed Sentence — its first Predi- cate being Intransitive, the second Transitive.
UP The Teacher will find exercises of this sort beneficial chiefly to beginners, who may be associated with more advanced scholars.*
EXERCISES IN ETYMOLOGICAL ANALYSIS AND
PARSING.
a Every motive therefore, of justice and of policy, of dignity and prudence, urges you to allay the ferment in America, by a removal of your troops from Boston ; by a repeal of your Acts of Parliament ; and by a demonstration of amicable dispositions towards your Colonies." — Pitt.
" From the shore, Eat into caverns by the restless wave, And forest-rustling 'mountains, comes a voice, That solemn sounding, bids the world prepare. "
Thomson. u There Joy gilds the mountains, all purple and bright ; And Peace, in the vales, rests in gentle repose ; And Love, like a spirit of beauty and light, Breathes sweetness abroad, on the air as it blows."
F. S. Jeivelle. u There is a stern round tower of other days. Firm as a fortress, with its fence of stone ; Such as an army's baffled strength delays, Standing with half its battlements alone, And with two thousand years of Ivy overgrown." — Byron. 11 Amidst the murmuring fountains Of everlasting life, Thy spirit like a bounding bark, With song and gladness rife, Goes gliding to the palmy shore, That lies in sunny light before." — Hesperian.
" Let me hear thy voice awake, and bid her Give me new and glorious hopes, like sunbeams, Gleaming thro' the dark, but scattering clouds ; And strength of soul, to outbrave the thunder blast, And like the eagle, sunward, mount, o'er rock, And cloud, and storm, forever."— F. S. Jeivelle.
EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 109
•• The firmament grows brighter With every golden grain. As handful after handful
Falls on the azure plain.51 — G. Duffield* Jr. " He sang the fond, The wild imaginings of his young heart. For which he gave up home, and friends, and all : And his sweet tones were clear, and calmly proud : But. when he told the life of misery. The breaking bubble, the sad heart, the fame, Of which too late he proved the emptiness. His notes were faint and cheerless as the heart Which sang them." — Miss Timble. •■ The walls That close the Universe with crystal in. Are eloquent with voices that proclaim The unseen glories of immensity. In harmonies, too perfect and too high For aught but beings of celestial mould. And speak to man in one eternal hymn, Unfading beauty, and unyielding power/' — Percival. K The silvery tide will bear thee, Amid the sound and bloom. Of many a green and blessed isle. Whose shining banks illume Each wandering bark, and pathway dim Along the passing billows' brim.'' — Hesperian.
-• For lo! ten thousand torches flame and flare
Upon the midnight air. Blotting the lights of heaven
With one portentous glare. Behold the fragrant smoke in many a fold
Ascending floats along the fiery sky,
And hangeth visible on high,
A dark, and waving canopy ! n — Southey.
" 0 liberty ! I wait for thee.
To break this chain and dungeon bar ; I hear thy spirit calling me.
Deep in the frozen north afar. With voice like GocVs, and visage like a star/'
Placidt,
110 PART II.- — ETYMOLOGY — EXERCISES.
" A sound system of government requires the people to read, and inform themselves upon political subjects ; else they are the prey of every quack, every impostor, and every agitator. who may practise his trade in the country." — Ld. Brougham.
" His Lordship knew full well, that the circulation of News- papers would create a spirit of inquiry, that would search all the hidden abominations of royalty; would rouse to free thought the slaves of custom and despotic favor ; would strip from titled oppressors the gaudy covering which dazzles ^ the unthinking multitude ; would develope a moral power, that would sweep away every stronghold of error and wrong." <