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TRANSACTIONS
OF
THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE DE ST. LOUIS.
VOL. XXII. JANUARY, 1913, TO DECEMBER, 1913.
PUBLISHED UNDER DIRECTION OF THE COUNCIL.
ST. LOUIS. NIXON-JONES PRINTING CO.
n
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(|
CONTENTS.
PAGE. set AR COE COONTMENT I S26 Os alaiare pce ged age berm aitetalw eb ghey iii Taare OP ORRA Yee iors ooeeeehoemenedy Abeer ct Vv List of Mempers. Revised to December 31, 1913...... vi 1. Patrons. 2. Honorary MEMBERS. 3, Active MEMBERs. IND oe ce a 2 ME iy welp se wid bieia’ a biay xvi aN LS Ges Uy Uigiwie's vas estatdve sarge hee fp. 9 >.< OM ETITORY 2S. . siaciuwistslang who's aw Koes 8 oe Xxiv Recorp. January 1, to December 31, 1913............ Xxvili Papers Pusisuep. January 1, to December 31, 1913: ' 1. Pom Rav anp Nevum Rav—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina.—Plates I-XVIII.— issued March Zo LOI oo lee. seus 1 2. Francis E. NipHer.—Local Magnetic Storms.— | Plates XIX-XX.—Issued April 5, 1913..... 59
3. F. A. Sampson.—A Preliminary List of the Mol- - Jusea of Missouri. (Exclusive of the Union- idae.)—Issued July 18, 1913. .7........... 67 4. Francis EH. Nipuer.—Variations in the Earth’s Magnetic Field.—Plates XXI-XXIV.—Is- sued November 3, 1913) oi eye eee ee es 109 5. H. Harotp Hume.—The Flowers of Diospyros Kaki L. F.:—Plates XXV-XXXI.—Issued PIPOOMVNON Oe BORG iio so ve ater bin lec wie'e 125 6. TrrkE Pacre.—Prefatory Matter and Index of Vol. XXII. Record January 1, to December 31, 1913.—Issued April 10, 1914.
List oF AUTHORS............. 4A a EP RUN oe DL Sa 137 CABNERAL, PND cou ulolhoniy elas cinta ce a pu aK 138
PENDS TC! AANA ES lg Resta heey desig Gh es Beal oc2 dei 141
LIST OF OFFICERS, 1913.
pik ERO SR AR PURO 89 Edmund A. Engler. First Vicr PRESDENT.............. Francis E. Nipher. SEconD Vick PRESIDENT............ Arthur E. Ewing. RECORDING SECRETARY.............. J. A. Drushel. CORRESPONDING SECRETARY.......... George O. James. EE ER NE H. E. Wiedemann. TINE: AOS NA A PEPER SEE Wm. L. R. Gifford. NPRM NRN 2) 03h Gig sis ete ab WaNe Wale glk swat Julius Hurter.
Philip Rau. Hermann von Schrenk.
(TS NERY ee aa AM AN MEENA Adolf Alt. H. M. Whelpley.
MEMBERS.
1. Patrons. Bixby, William Keeney........ Kingshighway and Lindell Bls. Eliot, Henry Ware............ 4446 Westminster PI. tHarrison, Edwin............ Mallinckrodt, Edward......... 26 Vandeventer PI. MeMillan, Mrs. Eliza........:.25 Portland Pl.
McMillan, William Northrop. .. Century Bldg.
2. Honorary MEMBERS.
Arrhenius, Prof. Svante....... University of Stockholm,
Sweden. Bahlsen, Prof. Dr. Leopold.... University of Berlin, Germany. Kitasato, Prof. Shibasaburo.... University of Tokyo, Japan. Lewald, Geh. Oberreg. Rath
Theodor 4.) vce tape we sea Berlin, Germany. Limburg, Stirum, Graf........ Berlin, Germany. Orth, Geh. Rath Dr. Johann... University of Berlin, Germany. Ostwald, Prof. Wilhelm....... University of Leipzig, Germany. Ramsay, Sir William.......... Royal Institute, London, England. Rutherford, Prof. Ernest...... University of Manchester, England. Springer, Mrank. 2 Gov viewse es U. 8. National Museum, Washington, D. C. Trelease, William......... .... University of Illinois, Urbana, IIL. Waldeyer, Geh. Rath Prof. Dr.
WY OI icc Ss ee R ay University of Berlin, Germany. Wassermann, Prof. Dr. A...... University of Berlin, Germany. Wittmack, Geh. Reg. Rath
PrOL Lae hs eee eae .. University of Berlin, Germany.
+ Deceased.
Members. vii
3. ACTIVE MEMBERS.
beware, Pellorte sos. o'. sisewiscss e's Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa. Allen, George L....5.....6... 26 Westmoreland PI. PE ME eh ie aes. ca a ies 316 Metropolitan Bldg. Altheimer, Benjamin ........ Melrose Apartments. RIL Ree che vt) sos niou Gales s 4908d Euclid Terrace. i) ROMEO IOUGEG. EL.) ss ss sje so University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. OS EEE BEANE a aR ag Humboldt Bldg. Barnard, George D........... Vandeventer and Laclede Aves. Baumgarten, Walter.......... Humboldt Bldg. Beckwith, Thomas'............ Charleston, Mo. MS NV oo Oe wig a wien oe Wall and Atwater Sts., Bloomington, Ind. I ES Le ai cscs e auy ae as Fourth and Poplar Sts. Bessey, Charles Edwin'........ University of Nebraska,
mi Lincoln, Neb. BO LE ead cb cso 0 oe Ghee Metropolitan Bldg. Blankinship, Joseph William*..2525 Hilgard Ave., Berkeley, Cal. BE SOR es oe oe ass Makes Ninth and Locust Sts.
Bock, George W............-. 2904 Allen Ave. Borgmeyer, Charles J......... St. Louis University. Bostwick, Arthur E............ 70 Vandeventer Pl. Brandenburger, W. A.'........ 312 Inverness Bldg.,
; Sacramento, Cal. MNION Ay Coo eee ..... Stanford University, Cal. Brennan, MartinS............ 6304 Minnesota Ave.
Brimmer, George G........ ’,..6900 Michigan Ave. MEME OED. 6 eee 0'w Lig ecb actin Kirkwood, Mo.
TOOK SOON IO. oc Sek ls Mississippi Valley Trust Co. Brookings, Robert S.......... 6510 Ellenwood Ave. Brown, Daniel S.'............ Brownhurst, Kirkwood, Mo. PeGer) ER AL a eck S 8s Rolla, Mo.
peer, WR eo 4439 Washington Boul. RrOneh, AME A aos abla Busch PI.
Bush, Benjamin Franklin'..... Courtney, Mo.
Butler, William M............ Yeatman High School.
1 Non-resident.
Viii
Cale, George W., Jr Campbell, James A Carleton, Murray Carpenter, George O Carr, Peyton T Carver, George Washington’... Caspari, Charles E Catlin. Daniele (5)... sneaks Chambers: "CAs ak
eee eee eeoe see eee reese ee ey eee eww wees
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Chappell; WriGe i gue Chenery, Winthrop Holt Clarke, Enos euciiiiel. s eas be Clopton, Malvern B Colnon}: Bi Sai a apie set ce Conzelman, Theophilus Cook, Abraham yogi olay Wook, Francis oye oye el i Gook,' Isage Tong tlio) oi Cook, Jerome E Oramer, Gustay ound vecdwe Crawford, Hanford Crecelius, Elyse C............ Curley, Francis HE. A.......... Curtis, William S230'sy vos
Dameron, Edward Caswell?... Danforth, Charles H.......... Bevis! HON se if Davis, John Doi sci eee Pee Dewey, Liyster Bot. ov adieu
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Diehm, Ferdinand
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
12 Lennox PI.
Mermod Jaccard Bldg.
1135 Washington Ave.
12 Portland PI.
62 Vandeventer Pl.
Tuskegee, Ala.
4060 Westminster Pl.
Security Bldg.
University of Cincinnati, — Cincinnati, O.
501 Clara Ave.
Washington University.
Kirkwood, Mo.
Humboldt Bldg.
506 Merchants’ Laclede Bldg.
5260 Washington Boul. ‘
4208 Pine St.
.5510 Cates Ave.
Chemical Bldg.
4254 Lindell Boul.
Care Cramer Dry Plate Co. 4442 Lindell Boul.
1110 Dillon St.
6143 Berlin Ave. Washington University.
. Clarksville, Mo.
Washington University, Medical Department. 56 Vandeventer PI. Third National Bank Bldg. 4612 Ninth St., N. W., Washington, D. C. 6175 Kingsbury Boul.
Doan, George Pc) 42 Portland Pl. Dock) Meorwe si SOL a eg Washington University,
Medical Department. Dorsett, Walter B............ Wall Bldg. Dougan, Lewis M....... ‘......3955 Botanical Ave. Drosten, F. W.......,........3021 Vietor St.
Drashel, IA ie aay Bae Teachers’ College.
Se ae
Te Emer
po a en OG MO — So
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Members. ix Duggar, Benjamin M.......... Missouri Botanical Garden. Duneker, Charles H........... 3636 Page Ave. baling AL Wet or una len Warrenton, Mo. ENO. Re EW Us Hanes ea Gy 416 Jackson St., Dallas, Texas. Hilers, Roy M.......... HAD ey Central National Bank Bldg. Eimbeck, August F.*.......... New Haven, Mo. Eliot, Edward C............ .5468 Maple Ave. Emerson, John B............. Syndicate Trust Bldg. Emmel, Victor E............. Washington University, Medical Department. _ Engler, Edmund Arthur....... Washington University. Ericson, Eric John...... ou cal 1420 Clara Ave. Peer ROOD Pie es 608 Olive St. Espenschied, Charles ......... 3500 Washington Ave. Evers, Edward. ......... Rena 1861 North Market St. PO a Uli a kg 3411 Pestalozzi St. Ewing, Arthur E............. 5956 Cabanne Pl. PROPOR VERS: Boat) gikle'e ova) elarsinitie Whittier, Cal. Mischel,” Walter Ooh. .ce. 6. oe. 5284 Westminster Pl. Fischel, Washington E........ Humboldt Bldg. TT OS SNES a eRe heme ee 2449 EH. Mareus Ave. CEU S 0e aS aR ae ARE Sy yp NCL Gainesville, Fla. Fordyce, John R.'............ 2223 Louisiana St.,
Little Rock, Ark. it SE ING MRRP COR pO Nie Ae L 21 Washington Terrace. French, George Hazen'....... Carbondale, Ill.
Frerichs, Frederick W........ 4320 Washington Boul.
Frick, John Henry’........... Warrenton, Mo.
ey PAI Bes 5 Uso Wa aainsiaa 4609 McPherson Ave.
Funkhouser, Robert Monroe. ..4354 Olive St.
Garman, Harrison? ........... Lexington, Ky.
CECee PA Oe oa WY 3453 Magnolia Ave.
4) Sn Up RR AE 17 West End Ave., Rockaway Park, Long Island, N. Y.
Gifford, William L. R......... Mercantile Library.
Gall. Charles) Mii ot vile ona Teachers’ College.
Crete BP ie Ra tae sg Fort Collins, Colo.
Glasgow, Frank A............ 3894 Washington Ave.
x Trans. Acad. Sct. of St. Louis.
Goldstein, Max A............. 3858 Westminster PI. Goltra, Edward F............ 4416 Lindell Boul. Goodman, Charles H.......... Wall Bidg. Gratz, Benjamin 3: 'v'isis oes eed Rialto Bldg. Graves, William W........... Metropolitan Bldg. Greene, Cu, Free eek Rolla, Mo. Greenman, Jesse M........... Missouri Botanical Garden. Grindon, JOpeDIN ed iis evce'e 3894 Washington Ave. Gundelach, William J...... ',..4458 Washington Boul. Gundlach, John H............ 3615 North Broadway. Guy, William E..... Pen sens 10 Portland PI. Haarstick, Henry C........... St. Louis Union Trust Bldg. Hall, Robert Ati Tiniosaese 323 Sixth Ave., S. E., Minneapolis, Minn. Hambach, Gustav?............ 2605 Louisiana Ave. Hard, M164. hua. Kirkwood, Mo. Harder, Ulriehigo ea 8015 Florissant Ave. Hartmann, Rudolph........... 3859 Flora Boul. Hecker, Frederick’........... Argyle Bldg., Kansas City, Mo. Held; George Awsinicaiee ics ee « International Bank. Hendrich, Walter F........... 6228 Washington Boul. ert, Oncar 06. eens Pierce Bldg. Hoffman, Philip, Geeks 3657 Delmar Ave. Hoke, William E............. 304 North Third St. aromman: ©. Tas Si sie ee Laclede Gas Bldg. Hughes, Charles Hamilton..... Metropolitan Bldg. Hughes, Mare Ray............ Metropolitan Bldg. Hume, H: Haroldts ee aeriwas Glen St. Mary, Fla. Hurter, Julingio so.) 6 ee 2346 South Tenth St. Ilhardt, William K........... Euclid and Delmar Aves. Srish, Henry Oo. os sive. aia Commonwealth Trust Bldg. James, George Oscar.......... Washington University. Johnson, Albert L.?........... Mutual Life Insurance Bldg., Buffalo, N. Y. sonas, Ernest... 6s eee eee ek 465 North Taylor Ave.
*Blected a life-emember January 3, 1882.
pS ES ae On eS
Fe eS
Members. xi
Jones, Breckinridge........... 45 Portland Pl. Jones, Robert McKittrick...... 6 Westmoreland PI. Kammerer, Alfred L.......... Tower Grove and Flad Aves. Kennett, Luther M............ 3507. Lucas Ave. Kessler, George E............. Security Bldg. PRN SAP SigE Ghia hae g Y hier niboel kas 224 South Vandeventer Ave. Keyes, Charles R.*............ 944 Fifth St., Des Moines, a. Wee TTB 55.6 oie s Shar p'ale 78 Walduventon Pi, Kirchner, Walter C. G........ 1127 North Grand Ave. RN BEE APD. seo ow opie saca.e 2853a Accomac St. MTN ET e bai) s 0) oo vane a nlaie’ Eighteenth and Olive Sts. SS GE OES a vm 4433 Westminster PI. MM Oh is s ha b ose yc dw ele ese ‘6700 Manchester Ave. La Brie, Joseph Damas’....... 504 Keith & Perry Bldg., | Kansas City, Mo. Lang, George, Jr........ ares 3601 Salena St. Langsdorf, Alexander S....... Washington University. MM SES EES Sahin 3's wd oe cia'g es 3600 North Broadway. Lawver, Albert Briggs......... 5715 Clemens Ave. Leavitt, Sherman'............ Illinois College, Jacksonville, Ill. MN BG GP ose oie ok Sala acele a University City, Mo. Bentet, COD De). 55 65. s s elm ae es 1740 Simpson Pl. BN RIOD 5 5'0 ass hoo Mae Miele s St. Louis Skin and Cancer Hos- pital.
Luedde, William H........... Metropolitan Bldg. Lukens, C. DeWitt............ 4908 Laclede Ave. Mallinckrodt, Edward, Jr...... Mallinckrodt Chemical Works. Bere W. CK eee, 2136 South Grand Ave. Markham, George Dickson..... 4961 Berlin Ave. Mason, Silas C......%..5..... R. F. D. No. 1, Bethesda, Md. Matthews, Leonard............ 5447 Cabanne PI. Mauran, John Lawrence....... 1620 Chemical Bldg. PRCHAPIMO Wii cous da Oe bean Haskell & Barker Car Co.,
: Michigan City, Ind. McCulloch, Richard........... 3869 Park Av. Molieod) No Was seoes soe Lumberman’s Bldg. McMaster, LeRoy............. Washington University. Meier, Theodore G............: 5220 Washington Boul.
Mepham. GSLs Nee a 4434 Westminster PI.
Xii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Megker Prank oi iiss ysis ue 421 South Sixth St. EGON Ts. dicts cine ae wea anek 7730 Jeanette St., New Orleans, La. Monell, Joseph T............. 3454 Halliday Ave. | Montfort; Wy! oe Uae eae 77 East May St. Montague, John E............ National Bank of Commerce Bldg. Moore, George T.............. Missouri Botanical Garden. Moore, Philip ‘Nis 04 bs)6 6 Vee ond Merchants’ Laclede Bldg. Moore, Robert........5....-2¢. 61 Vandeventer Pl. Mudd, Harvey Gs sabe 408 Humboldt Bldg. Mueller, Ambrose’............ Webster Groves, Mo. Nagel, Charles................ Seeurity Bldg. Nasse, August.:05). See wiekil. 2323 Lafayette Ave. Nauer, Albert Busty tus oes y 4634 Nebraska Ave. Nicolaus, Henry.............. 2149 South Grand Ave. Nipher, Francis E............ Washington University. Nisbet, Fritz.................New National Bank of Com- merece Bldg. Noel, Alexander H............ 1323 Geyer Ave. Nolker, William H............ Fifteenth and Pine Sts. Norvell, Saunders............. LaSalle Bldg. Ghiweiler, WioW.. euleaewele 4026a Shenandoah Ave. Olshausen, Ernest P.......... 1115 Rutger St. t Opie, Eugene Lisi oe eee Washington University, Medical Department. O’Reilly, Andrew J........... 1720 Pierce Bldg. O’Reilly, Robert J..........0% 27 Washington Terrace. Padberg, AloysJ.............. 39002 Easton Ave. Palmer, Ernest Jesset......... 321 S. Allen St., Webb City, Mo. Pammel, Louis Hermann’...... Ames, Iowa. Pantaleoni, Guido............. 15 Lennox PI. Parker, George Ward......... 501 Liggett Bldg. Parker. Ta Bee e we wee Jefferson City, Mo. Perkins, Albert Ties e is va wica 401 North Fourth St. Pettus, Charles Py. sci e ce 33 Westmoreland PI. Pettus, Wr He Goieveiceen vu 4373 Westminster Pl.
Piteman, JF aliys, oie Cy 6 Kingsbury Pi.
Members. Xili
Post, Martin Hayward........ 5371 Waterman Ave.
Priest, Henry Samuel......... New National Bank of Com- merce Bldg.
PYG) TANGO esate a dae eos 1619 Massachusetts Ave.,
Cambridge, Mass.
MMRICMORDD OMI Oo nei) e alate 7 Kingsbury Pl. AR Lp eA ae Fourth and Market Sts. PRM OAD A is 6 a! so Saves ie lab 4932 Botanical Ave. Meper. th. Lanton, 2... een Kinloch Bldg. Reber, Maxime............... La Salle Bldg. Reed, George M.'............. 809 Virginia Ave., Columbia, Mo. BEODAL IH, ELCDOR sic 5 5 cle cis ee bo Belleville, Ill. Roever, William Henry........ Washington University. MMR AT OLCE Pha sos oaieyas seine Gainesville, Fla. Rosenwald, Lucian'........... 412 Delaware St., Kansas City, Mo. MPM EU ry ieee divx eea lad Chemical Bldg. Mm ean A ra it 6) 5863 Cabanne PI. TROT ELOY ooo. cick slaw eld pd Gee eked Sampson, Francis A.t......... Columbia, Mo. - Sargent, Charles Sprague’..... Jamaica Plains, Mass. - Sauer, William E............. Humboldt Bldg. peanian, Philip OC. ..003 sess 4450 Lindell Boul. Schlueter, Robert E........... 909 Park Ave. RETORORS Wy EELS 640 cei awa Kirkwood, Mo. Schramm, Jacob.............. Missouri Botanical Garden. Von Sehrenk, Hermann........ Tower Grove and Flad Aves. Schwarz, Ernest.............. 6310 Newstead Ave. PROT, TANI Se a ie. Slee seinais 1813 Lafayette Ave. eh wate, Penry os ci eed 440 North Newstead Ave. Schwarz, Herman’............ 720 Clark Ave., Webster Groves, Mo. Schweyer, George............. 4252 Blaine Ave.
See, Thomas Jefferson Jackson’. Naval Observatory, Mare Island, Cal. Selby, Augustine Dawson'..... Wooster, Ohio. Senter, Charles Parsons....... 1 Beverly Pl. Shackleford, Ben G........... 4511 McPherson Ave.
Xiv . Trans. Acad. Sc. of St. Louis.
Shaffer, Philip Avie... 20050. Washington University, Medical Department. Shahan, William E........... 5234a Von Versen Ave. Shannon, JamesI............. St. Louis University. Shapleigh, Alfred Lee......... 3636 Delmar Ave. Shapleigh, John B............ Humboldt Bldg. Sheldon, Foor ae. ca anawis . Chemical Bldg. Shepley; PON Bess ss Va de ae 53 Portland PI. Shimek, Bets). cen Sige na OAT Iowa City, Iowa. SIMMOMG Opes caked oven Ninth and Spruce Sts. Simmons, Wallace D.......... Ninth and Spruce Sts. ‘Skinker, Thomas K........... Pierce Bldg. Slater; Charles Hi yovea ss 03 130 West Swan Ave., Webster Groves, Mo. Sluder, Greenfield............ 3542 Washington Ave. Smith, D.: 8 Byerley uisios 4388 Westminster PI. Smith, George M............. Washington University, - Medical Department. Smith, Jared: Gob igi as sis ase o's Kealakekua, Hawaiian Islands. Standley, Pal GA) feu ew sk Gea Division of Plants, National Museum, Washington, D. C. Starr, John Bec oe 50 Church St., New York City. Stéizleni,:G. Meo. ieee 1215 North Grand Ave. Stennett, Wide ks a 203 Linden Ave., Oak Park, Ill. Stevens, Charles D............ 5352 Vernon Ave. Stevens, Wyandotte James..... 4458 Olive St. ix, Charles As. sy, eevee s Stix, Baer & Fuller Dry Goods Company. Stocker, George J............ 2833 South Kingshighway Bl. Sultan, Prod OW. oe 112 North Second St. Summa, Hugo... 06. ss bara Metropolitan Bldg. UP OAN, Gl. bc acaisn os see oe 2648 Russell Ave. Taussip, Albert BE... i sialic Metropolitan Bldg. Terry, Robert James.......... Washington University, ; Medical Department. Thacher; Arthur ¢ 663s ekeet 5185 Lindell Boul. Thomas, John Beavis ee ite be 4128 Washington Boul. Thomasson, Hugh W.......... 703 North Grand Ave. Thompson, Charles Henry..... Missouri Botanical Garden. Timmerman, Arthur H........ 6400 Plymouth Ave.
Todd; Charles Ay ieee eon) 3723 Delmar Ave.
Zellweger, John............... 1900 Adelaide Ave.
Members. XV Tuholske, Herman............ 465 North Taylor Ave. Turner, Charles H............ Sumner High School. BE BE) hs SRS ie Sh ae 74 Vandeventer Pl. Van Ornum, John Lane....... Washington University. Vickroy, Wilhelm Rees........ 2901 Rauschenbach Ave. WV OIDEIAGO, C/E. as dice wads Fourth and Market Sts. PEN, Me RIGS ha ee. be aia wince Ks Washington University. Walsh, JuliugS. 0... 0.0502. ‘Fourth and Pine Sts. Watts, Millard I’... cee. 5740 Cabanne PI. WERRORMO): TAAUIE 5.5 ds ee een co' 6400 Plymouth Ave. ERUR EMOTES 1. ois a 5:0 5.2. 6 550m Fullerton Bldg. ts a. a ea eae ERE 3437 Lucas Ave. Whelpley, Henry Milton....... 2342 Albion PI. Whitaker, Edwards........... 300 North Fourth St. Whitelaw, Osear L............ 409 North Second St. Whitten, John Charles’....... Columbia, Mo. ' TRI APLIO So ss os ow aces oe 5105 Von Versen Ave. Wiedemann, H. H............ 1105 Holland Bldg. aeaier, MeOVCr 120s . 6 anes es 3854 Westminster Pl. Wiggins, Charles............. 23 Portland PI. reer, MS By oc. acs Saree Washington University. Winkelmeyer, Christopher..... 4585 West Pine St. Wislizenus, Frederick A....... Washington University. Wolfner, Henry L............ 4563 Forest Park Boul. Woodward, Calvin Milton..... 3013 Hawthorne Boul. Woodward, Walter B.......... Woodward & Tiernan Ptg. Co. Wright, George M............ 4457 Westminster Pl. POA. 6s IER bys spn ta ee 3448 Longfellow Boul. Banorsky, John... 0.565 s ees 1460 South Grand Ave.
CONSTITUTION.
ARTICLE I. NAME.
Srotion 1. This Association shall be called ‘‘The Acap-. EMY OF SCIENCE OF Sr. Lovts.’’
-
ARTICLE II. OBJECT.
Section 1. It shall have for its object the promotion of science.
Szec. 2. As means to this end the Academy shall hold meetings for the consideration and discussion of scientific subjects; shall take measures to procure original papers upon such subjects; and shall, as often as may be prac- ticable, publish its transactions. It shall also establish and maintain a cabinet of objects illustrative of the several departments of science, and a library of works relating to the same. It shall also place itself in com- munication with other scientific institutions.
ARTICLE III. MEMBERS.
Section 1. The Academy shall consist of Actewe Mem- bers, Corresponding Members, Honorary Members and Patrons.
Sec. 2. Active Members shall be persons interested in science, and they alone shall conduct the affairs of the Academy.
Sec. 3. Persons not living in the City or County of St. Louis who may be disposed to further the object of the Academy by original researches, contributions of speci- mens, or otherwise, may be elected Corresponding Mem- bers.
Sec. 4. Persons not living’in the City or County of St. Louis may be elected Honorary Members by virtue of their attainments in science.
Constitution. XVil
Sec. 5. Any person conveying to the Academy the sum of one thousand dollars ($1,000) or its equivalent, may be elected a Patron.
Szc. 6. Persons may be admitted to any of the preced- ing classes of membership or dismissed therefrom in accordance with the regulations prescribed by the By- Laws.
ARTICLE IV. OFFICERS.
Srectiron 1. The officers of the Academy shall be chosen from the active members, and they shall consist of a
President,
First Vice-President, Second Vice-President, Recording Secretary, Corresponding Secretary, Treasurer,
Librarian,
Three Curators, .
Two Directors.
Said officers shall be elected at the time and in the manner prescribed by the By-Laws, and shall hold their offices for one year, or until their successors are elected.
Sec. 2. The duties of these officers shall be such as are customary and as prescribed by the By-Laws.
ARTICLE V. COUNCIL.
Section 1. The officers shall constitute the Council of the Academy and at its meetings five shall constitute a quorum.
Sec. 2. The duties of the Council shall be to consider all plans conducive to the welfare of the Academy; to audit all bills and order payment of such as they may approve; to consider all applications for membership; and to administer the business of the Academy, subject to the Constitution and By-Laws and to such instructions as may be given by the Academy.
ARTICLE VI. MEETINGS.
Section 1. The meetings of the Academy shall be held at such times and places as the By-Laws may direct.
XVili Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
ARTICLE VII. AMENDMENTS.
Section 1. Amendments to this Constitution shall be submitted in writing at a regular meeting. They shall be: open to discussion until at least the second meeting thereafter. They may then be adopted by a two-thirds vote of a letter-ballot, conducted in the manner prescribed by the Council.
ARTICLE VIII. SECTIONS.
Section 1. To encourage and promote special inves- tigations in any branch of science, members of the Acad- emy may form Sections, which shall be constituted as herein provided. |
Sec. 2. For the formation of a Section, written ap- plication shall be made to the Academy, at a regular meeting, by not less than six active members.
On the approval of this application by the affirmative vote of two-thirds of the members present at the next regular meeting, the Section shall be established and the names of the petitioners shall be recorded on its minutes _ as its founders.
‘Sec. 3. Sections may increase the number of their members by election, but only members of the Academy shall be elected members of any of the Sections.
Sec. 4. The officers of each Section shall be a Chair- man and a Secretary, who shall be elected by its members at the first meeting of the Section, and subsequently at the first meeting in January of each year.
Sec. 5. The collections and books of each Section are the common property of the Academy. Donations of books and specimens made to or for any Section shall be received as donations to the Academy for the use of the Section. )
Src. 6. A report of the proceedings of each Section - shall be submitted to the Academy at least once every month. Papers read before any Section with a view to - publication by the Academy shall take the same course as papers read before the Academy.
Sec. 7. On all points not herein provided for, each Section shall be governed by the Constitution, By-Laws and instructions of the Academy.
eS
eat
iy if | uf ee oe i i
By-Laws. xix
BY-LAWS.
I. REGULAR MEETINGS.
The regular meetings of the Academy shall be held on the first and third Monday evenings of every month, unless otherwise ordered by the Council.
II. SPECIAL MEETINGS.
Special meetings may be called by the President at his discretion, and shall be called by him on the written request of three or more members.
Ill, NOTICE OF MEETINGS.
The Recording Secretary shall send a notice of each meeting to every active member at least two days before such meeting.
IV. QUORUM.
Seven members shall constitute a quorum, but four members shall constitute a legal meeting for reading of papers.
V. ORDER OF BUSINESS.
The order of proceeding, at the regular meetings of the Academy, shall be as follows:
1. Call to order by President. 2. Scientific Program. a. Papers as announced. b. Reports of Sections. ce. Other communications (brief). d. Donations to the Museum and Library. e. Announcements by President (of special interest to visitors.)
“Xx Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
8. Business Meeting.
. Minutes of last meeting.
. Report of the Council.
. Reports of Committees.
. Report of the Corresponding Secretary.
. Deferred Business. New Business.
. Elections.
. Proposals for Membership. Adjournment.
reRrrProan of
VI. CORRESPONDING SECRETARY.
It shall be the duty of the Corresponding Secretary to conduct the correspondence and report to the Acad- emy.
VII. TREASURER.
The Treasurer shall collect all moneys due the Acad- emy; be custodian of all its funds, and pay such bills against the Academy as the Council shall approve. The Treasurer shall deposit the moneys and invest the funds of the Academy in its name and by and with the advice of the Council. Besides his annual report to the Acad- emy, the Treasurer shall make such further reports and statements concerning the financial affairs of the Acad- emy as the Council may from time to time require. Before entering upon his duties, the Treasurer shall give bond in such sum as may be required by the Council.
VIII. LIBRARIAN.
The Librarian shall take charge of all books belonging to or deposited with the Academy, and shall be respon- | sible for the same; he shall keep a catalogue thereof, in which the names of contributors shall be inscribed; he shall superintend the distribution of all the publications of the Academy.
IX. COUNCIL.
The Council shall act as a publication committee; shall prepare a program for each meeting, and make rules and regulations for their own guidance, not incon- sistent with the Constitution and By-Laws.
By-Laws. Xxi
X. ELECTION OF OFFICERS.
_ A nominating committee of three active members who are not officers of the Academy shall be elected at the first regular meeting in December. This committee shall nominate candidates for all the offices for the ensuing year, and report the nominations at the following meet- ing, when other nominations may be made by any active member. The Recording Secretary shall mail to every active member a list of the nominees for office, at least ten days preceding the annual meeting. The polls shall be closed at 6 p. m. on the day of the annual meeting, after which the nominating committee shall count the ballots and announce the results to the Academy. A plurality of the votes cast shall suffice to elect.
XI. VACANCIES.
All vacancies shall be filled by the Council in a regular or called meeting, notice whereof having been given at least two days previously.
XII. ELECTION OF MEMBERS,
A candidate for admission to the Academy shall be proposed by not less than two members at any regular meeting. The proposal must then be referred to the Council, and if upon examination they shall find the candidate to be eligible and worthy of membership, they shall order the question as to his admission to be submitted to the Academy for ballot. If there be five votes in the negative, the candidate shall be rejected, and shall not be again voted upon for twelve months after such rejection. But if the number of negative votes be less than five, the candidate shall be elected, but shall not be considered a member until he shall have paid the annual dues for the current year. Any failure to pay the annual dues within thirty days after the can- didate has been notified of his election, shall work a for- feiture of all rights under said election, if the Council shall so determine. No entry shall be made on the record of the rejection of any candidate.
xxii Trans. Acad. Scr. of St. Louis.
>
XIII. RESIGNATION OF MEMBERS.
Any member whose dues have been fully paid may withdraw from the Academy by a written resignation. Non-payment of dues for one year or longer may be treated as equivalent to resignation; but before any member is dropped from the rolls for delinquency, he shall be entitled to not less than four weeks’ notice.
XIV. EXPULSION OF MEMBERS.
Upon the written request of five members, that, for cause stated, any member be expelled, the Council shall consider the matter, and if they deem it best, shall advise the member that his resignation will be accepted. He © shall, however, have the right to demand and shall be given a copy of the charges against him, and shall have a reasonable time to present a written defense. The Council may then pass finally upon the matter, and if resignation has not been tendered, or a satisfactory de- fense made, may by an affirmative vote of four of their number expel the member, in which ease they shall notify him and the Academy of their action, and his name shall be at once dropped from the list of members.
XV. INITIATION FEES AND DUES.
Annual dues shall be paid at the beginning of each year. Resident active members shall pay annual dues of six dollars, and non-resident active members shall pay annual dues of three dollars. There shall be no initiation fee.
XVI. HONORARY MEMBERS AND PATRONS. Honorary members and Patrons shall be recommended
by the Council, and elected by the unanimous vote of the members present at any regular meeting.
XVII. PUBLICATIONS.
Patrons, honorary members, and all active members not in arrears shall be entitled to one copy of all the publications of the Academy issued subsequent to their
By-Laws. XXxiii
election. Authors of papers shall be entitled to twenty extra copies of their individual papers.
XVIII. SALE OF REAL ESTATE.
The property conveyed to The Academy of Science of St. Louis on the eighteenth day of March, 1903, by Edgar R. Hoadley and Lavinia L. Hoadley, as a gift from Mrs. Eliza MeMillan and William N. MeMillan, shall not be mortgaged or voluntarily encumbered by the Academy of Science; and the said property shall not be sold, except with the consent of two-thirds of the members of the Academy of Science, obtained by letter-ballot, in such manner as may be prescribed by the Council; and, when sold, the proceeds of the sale or so much thereof as may be necessary, shall be used to provide a suitable location and building for the use of The Academy of Science of St. Louis. |
XIX. AUTHORITY.
‘On all points of order and procedure, not provided for in the Constitution and By-Laws, Robert’s Rules of Order shall be the authority.
XX. AMENDMENTS.
These By-Laws may be amended by two-thirds vote of all the members present at any regular meeting, pro- vided notice of the proposed amendment shall have been mailed to every member at least one week before the vote thereon is taken.
ABSTRACT OF HISTORY.
ORGANIZATION.
The Academy of Science of St. Louis was organized on the 10th of March, 1856, in the hall of the Board of Public Schools. Dr. George Engelmann was the first President.
CHARTER.
On the 17th of January following, a charter incorporat- ing the Academy was signed and approved, and this was accepted by a vote of the Academy on the 9th of February, 1857.
OBJECTS.
The act of incorporation declares the object of the Academy to be the advancement of science and the estab- _ lishment in St. Louis of a museum and library for the illustration and study of its various branches, and pro- vides that the members shall acquire no individual prop- erty in the real estate, cabinets, library, or other of its effects, their interest being merely usufructuary.
The constitution as adopted at the organization meet- ing and amended at various times subsequently, provides ~ for holding meetings for the consideration and discussion of scientific subjects; taking measures to procure original papers upon such subjects; the publication of transac- tions; the establishment and maintenance of a cabinet of objects illustrative of the several departments of science and a library of works relating to the same; and the establishment of relations with other scientific institu- tions. To encourage and promote special investigation in any branch of science, the formation of special sections under the charter is provided for.
Abstract of History. XXV
MEMBERSHIP.
Members are classified as active members, correspond- ing members, honorary members and patrons. Active membership is limited to persons interested in science, though they need not of necessity be engaged in scientific work, and they alone conduct the affairs of the Academy, under its constitution. Persons not living in the city or county of St. Louis who are disposed to further the objects of the Academy, by original researches, contribu-
tions of specimens, or otherwise, are eligible as corre-
sponding members. Persons not living in the city or county of St. Louis are eligible as honorary members by virtue of their attainments in science. Any person con- veying to the Academy the sum of one thousand dollars or its equivalent becomes eligible as a patron.
Under the By-Laws, resident active members pay annual dues of six dollars. Non-resident active members pay annual dues of three dollars only. Patrons and honorary and corresponding members are exempt from the payment of dues. Each patron, honorary member, and active member not in arrears is entitled to one copy of each publication of the Academy issued after his election.
Since the organization of the Academy, 1,324 persons have been elected to active membership, of whom, on December 31, 1913, 304 were carried on the list. Six patrons, Mr. Edwin Harrison, Mrs. Eliza McMillan, Mr. William Northrop McMillan, Mr. Henry W. Eliot, Mr. William Keeney Bixby and Mr. Edward Mallinckrodt, have been elected. Elections to honorary membership number 14 (page vi), and 225 persons (Vol. X., p. xii) have been elected to corresponding membership.
OFFICERS AND MANAGEMENT.
The officers, who are chosen from the active members, consist of a President, two Vice-Presidents, Recording and Corresponding Secretaries, Treasurer, Librarian, three Curators and two Directors. The general business
XXVvl Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
management of the Academy is vested in a Council com- posed of the officers.
The office of President has been filled by the following well-known citizens of St. Louis, nearly all of whom have . been eminent in some line of scientific work: George Engelmann, Benjamin F’. Shumard, Adolphus Wislizenus, Hiram A. Prout, John B. Johnson, James B. Eads, Wil- liam T. Harris, Charles V. Riley, Francis E. Nipher, Henry S. Pritchett, John Green, Melvin L. Gray, Hd- mund A. Engler, Robert Moore, Henry W. Eliot, Edwin Harrison, Adolf Alt, Calvin M. Woodward, and William Trelease.
MEETINGS.
The regular meetings of the Academy are held at its building, 3817 Olive Street, at 8:15 o’clock, on the first and third Monday evenings of each month, a recess being taken between the meeting on the first Monday in June and the meeting on the third Monday in October. These meetings, to which interested persons are always wel- come, are devoted in part to the reading of technical papers designed for publication in the Academy’s Trans- actions, and in part to the presentation of more popular abstracts of recent investigation or progress. From time to time public lectures, calculated to interest a larger audience, are provided for in some suitable hall.
The following dates for regular meetings for the year ‘1914 have been fixed by the Council:
Jan | Feb | Mar | April | May | June | Oct | Nov | Dec
19 16 16 20 18 19 16 21
Abstract of History. XXVii
LIBRARY.
After its organization, the Academy met in Pope’s Medical College, where a creditable beginning had been made toward the formation of a museum and library, until May, 1869, when the building and museum were destroyed by fire, the library being saved. The library now contains about 18,500 books and 16,000 pamphlets, and is open during certain hours of the day for consulta- tion by members and persons engaged in scientific work.
PUBLICATIONS AND EXCHANGES.
Twenty-two octavo volumes of Transactions have been published since the organization of the Academy, and widely distributed. Two quarto publications have also been issued: one from the Archaeological Section, being a contribution to the archaeology of Missouri, and the other a report of the observations made by the Washing- ton University Eclipse Party of 1889. The Academy now stands in exchange relations with 420 institutions or organizations of aims similar to its own.
MUSEUM.
After the loss of its first museum, in 1869, the Acad- emy lacked adequate room for the arrangement of a public museum, and, although small museum accessions were received and cared for, its main effort, of necessity, was concentrated on the holding of meetings, the forma. tion of a library, the publication of worthy scientific mat- ter, and the maintenance of relations with other scientific © bodies.
The Museum is at present located on the first floor of the Academy Building and has in it a number of specimens illustrating the various branches of natural science, among which may be mentioned the Yandell Col- lection of fossils, a collection of some 600 exotic butter- flies, a collection of Mound Builder pottery and skulls from near New Madrid, Mo., and a collection of 25 meteorites. Our material forms but a nucleus of a museum which the Academy hopes to establish—a ‘museum which we trust will be of benefit to the public and to the educational institutions of the city.
XXViii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
RECORD. From January 1 to Decemsper 31, 1913.
The following list of papers were presented at the meetings during this period:
January 15, 1913:
S. Bent Russert.—Demonstration and Design of Apparatus to Simulate the Working of Nerv- ous Discharges.
(Published in Journal of Animal Behavior, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1913.)
J. L. Van Ornum.—Experiments on the Pointing of Pressure Tubes, to Eliminate Velocity Ef- fects, in Water Pipes.
F. E. Nipper.—The Strength of a Steel Magnet Dependent upon its Electric Potential.
February 3, 1913: Moss" Chara. —Plant Improvement by Selection. C. H. Turner.—An Apparent Reversal of the Light Responses of the Common Roach. F. EK. Nipper.—The Strength of a Steel Magnet Dependent upon its Electric Potential.
February 17, 1913:
F. E. Nipre: Effect of Electrification of Air on its Magnetic Permeability.
LeRoy McMasrer.—The Preparation and Proper- ties of Some Ammonium Salts of Organic Acids. +
(Published in American Chemical Journal, Vol. XLIX, No. 4, 1913.)
Leo Lozs.—Some Biological Aspects of Tumor In-
vestigation.
March 3, 1913: F. EK. Nrpper.—The Behavior of the Magnetic Needle on Windy and Calm Days.
(Published in Transactions, Academy of Science of St. Louis, Vol. XXII, No. 2, 19138.)
Abstract of History. Xxix
R. A. Hatu.—Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen. S. S. Knicut.—Some Microscopic Observations upon _ the Segregation of Impurities in Carbon-Iron
Alloys. R. J. Terry.—The Development of the Cranium in Mammals. II.
March 17, 1913: K. G. Paynzt.—Social Effects of Some Recent Child Labor Legislation in Missouri. C. M. Guu.—A Possible Explanation of the ‘In- ferno’ at Fern Lake near Estes Park, Colorado. F. EK. Nrpper.—The Effect of Wind on the Magnetic Needle.
April 7, 1913: G. O. James.—How Worlds are Formed. Juuius Hurrer.—Cobras.
April 21, 1913: B. M. Duccar.—The Significance of Color in Plants. C. A. 'Topp.—Observations on the Migratory Flight, of a Butterfly. R. A. Hatu.—Preparation of Neutral Tri-Ammonium Citrate.
May 5, 1913: M. HE. Witson.—The Geology of the Meramec High- lands Region. . C. A. Topp.—Further Observations on the Migra- tory Flight of a Butterfly.
May 19, 1913: Gzo. T. Moorz.—Speculations on the Origin of Life.
June 2, 1913: f Hermann von Scorenk.—Recent Epidemic Appear- ance of Termites in St. Louis Houses. H. M. Wuenpry.—The Shrunken Human Heads of Bolivia.
xxx Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
October 20, 1913: F. KE. Nreuer.—Variations in the Earth’s Magnetic Field.
(Published in Transactions, Academy of Science of St. Louis, Vol. XXII, No. 4, 1913.)
H. M. Wueurery.—Problems in American Arche- ology.
November 3, 1913: J. L. ee Ornum.—Forests and Piopiia:
November 17, 1913:
F. E. Nene, —Uniform Motion of a Load upon an Inclined Plane.
W. H. Cuenery.—The Problem of Cosanwaiens a Criticism of Theodor Ostwald’s Der Energet- ische Imperativ.
C. A. Watpo.—A New Application of Electricity to the Production of Musical Tones.
December 1, 1913: J. M. Greenman.—The Coastal-Plain Flora of Mexico. W. H. Rorver.—The Curve of Light on the Dome
of the New Roman Catholic Cathedral. (Published in American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. XX, No. 10, Dec., 1913.)
December 15, 1913: J. A. Wayne. —The Process of Manufacturing Anti- Toxins.
Meretine or January 6, 1913.
The Academy of Science of St. Louis met in the Acad- emy Building, 3817 Olive Street, at 8 p. m., January 6, 1913; President Engler in the chair; attendance 20.
The President delivered his address as President of the Academy for the year 1912.
The Treasurer’s report for the year 1912 was sub- mitted.®
The report of the Curators for 1912 was read.*
The report of the Librarian for 1912 was presented.®
° Transactions, Vol. XXI, page lii. * Transactions, Vol. XXI, page lii. °> Transactions, Vol. XXI, page lii.
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Record. Xxxi
The Nominating Committee reported the results of the election of officers for 1913, as follows:
MEMOMIIONEE re ai arasuie) PAUL wa A ghetural araconGs ew arel a eib E. A. Engler PATBC. VICE“PYEGIGORG 6 aie. 6 bia sine edie wierd o'eials FE. E. Nipher Second Vice-President ...............000. A, E. Ewing Hecordinge ‘Secretary. oi eisiec backs dew aes J. A. Drushel Corresponding Secretary .................Geo. O. James PP DOE ON 5: oclela vio ce des Wid cy nip chee d sitter aa cies H. E. Wiedemann BUREN UE MEAST cases 5b 50, 8 eh eter ol tioeea eek a ARN eH TARS Wm. L. R. Gifford BOL ie ER Fei ciate Catelaud wie ala ele abivads Julius Hurter Hermann von Schrenk Philip Rau MMPORENG 2. dei dik week ‘aavralcie b WW eae Adolf Alt
H. M. Whelpley
The death of Dr. Geo. C. Crandall and of Mr. Irwin Z. Smith, active members, and of Professor G. C. Broad- head, corresponding member, was reported.
January 20, 1913.
President Engler in the chair; attendance 24. The following donations to the Museum were reported:
R. F, O’Neal..European Starling (Sturnus vulgaris). .. Louisiana Centennial Medal, 1812-1813.
Mr. 8. Bent Russell read a paper on ‘‘Demonstration - and Design of Apparatus to Simulate the Working of Nervous Discharges.’’
First Mr. Russell explained why it is that an animal provided with muscles and a nervous system grows wiser with experience. For ex- ample, if an animal makes a movement that is followed by pain it will learn to refrain from the movement. In the same way he ex- plained why the horse learns to jump at the crack of the whip without
. Waiting for the blow; why the animal learns to avoid certain obstacles
by turning certain ways; why a movement that is followed by a form of satisfaction becomes habitual; why the movements of certain mus- cles, after the proper experience, habitually occur together.
The explanation showed that all these actions are due simply to the nervous discharge following the channel that is most open at the time. The more frequently the channel has been used and the more recently, the more open it will be. The point was then made that if the chan- nel is provided with two sensory endings and conditions are such that the two endings are excited in succession from time to time, it will become much more open, and movements will be made accordingly.
XXxil Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Thus experience determines development and variable responses are accounted for.
The theory thus given was supplemented by a brief description with lantern slides and sketches of a practical device which operates on something the same principle. The apparatus described is a hydraulic regulating system. The important parts are: Ist, a transmitter or triple slide valve with a timing attachment; 2nd, a measuring or bal- ancing device governing a hydraulic cylinder or motor; 3rd, a system of key rods connected so that each key rod controls one or more trans- mitters and on the other hand each transmitter is controlled by one or more key rods. /
The speaker demonstrated that the apparatus will respond to signals as a hervous system does, i. e., the responses are determined by pre- vious experience. In other words, the speaker showed a practical ar- rangement of valves, pipes, springs, ratchets, cranks, pistons, etc, that will respond to signals and make movements like the nerves and mus- cles in an animal of some intelligence. The mechanism can be trained, can acquire habits, will move forward or back at a given signal, accord- ing to experience, will make one, two or three responses to a given signal, according to experience.
Professor J. L. Van Ornum spoke on ‘‘Experiments on the Pointing of Pressure Tubes, to Eliminate Veloc- ity Effects, in Water Pipes,’’ with especial reference to the auxiliary tubes of Pitometers.
For a long time it was assumed and still seems to be supposed by many, judging from statements in books and periodicals, that the pointing of a pitot tube to give a zero velocity indication when placed in a fluid stream should be at an angle of ninety degrees from the direction of flow; but this is not true. To the members of this Academy the most familiar proof of the fact is contained in paper No. 3, of Vol. XVI, of its Transactions, in which Professor Nipher states that a pitot tube in a current of air shows a negative velocity head (when pointed at an angle of ninety degrees from the direction of the air current) greater in amount than the maximum positive velocity head when directly facing the current of air; and that the angle of pointing to show a zero velocity head in air is sixty degrees. -
The thesis experiments of Messrs. Patton and Wallace in the Wash- - ington University hydraulic laboratory nearly three years ago and later ones by Mr. Hooper, as well as Dr. Schuster’s experiments at Dresden published about two years ago, are definite indications that the same facts are true in currents of water.
Among the other considerations discussed in the above mentioned theses is one perhaps more important than that just mentioned. It is the fact that, unless the pitot tubes have the theoretically required per- fectly thin edge, the angle is increased from the sixty degree angle to one of greater size. When a cone, with its base coinciding with the plane of the mouth of the pitot tube, is used, its angle is greater than
Record. XXXili
sixty degrees in proportion to the increase of diameter of the base; and it does not require a very great expanse of mouth area to give an angle > of ninety degrees, the one first assumed.
This conclusion has a particular point of interest in the fact that it indicates that the usual piezometer attachment to pipes for measuring pressure heads is correct, their normal direction having no connection with the sixty degree angle already discussed for the thin-edged pitot tubes.
Professor F. E. Nipher stated that he had obtained results in recent experiments which seem to indicate that the strength of a steel magnet depends upon its electric potential.
Mr. John E. Montague was elected to membership.
Frepruary 3, 1913.
President Engler in the chair; attendance 15. The following donations to the Library were reported:
J. J. Kessler..... A pamphlet on The Nitrile of Fumariec Acid. A. §..Langsdorf..Two volumes of Science.
Mr. Moses Craig read a paper on ‘‘Plant Improve- ment by Selection.’’
Mr. Craig briefly traced the history of plant breeding, outlining the Darwinian and De Vriesian views of the origin of new forms, with Mendel’s law of character segregation. The importance of hybridiza- tion in hastening variation was mentioned with methods of inbreeding and methodical selection. He then gave many practical directions for improving our pomaceous, cereal and vegetable crops.
Dr. Chas. H. Turner read a paper on ‘‘An Apparent Reversal of the Light Responses of the Common Roach.’’
The paper discussed a series of experiments conducted with the com- mon roach (Periplaneta orientalis) for the purpose of seeing if the negatively phototropic animal could be trained to refuse to enter a specific dark place; and, if that proved possible, to experimentally analyze the behavior. The electrical punishment method, devised by Professor Yerkes, in his study of the dancing mouse, was used.
According to the speaker this method has been used only once before in the study of insect behavior; that was by Mr. Szymanski*® in study- ing the responses of several larval male cockroaches. A resumé of
® Journal of Animal Behavior, 2:81-90. 1912.
XXXiv Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Lowis.
Mr. Szymanski’s paper was given and the statement made that Mr. Szymanski did not experimentally determine whether the refusal to enter the dark chamber was the reversal of a negative phototropism or an example of learning, by means of associative memory, to avoid a disagreeable dark place.
A pen containing one dark chamber and one lighted chamber, or a pen containing one dark chamber and two lighted chambers, was placed on a platform composed of copper strips so arranged that an electric current could be sent through them at will. A marked roach was placed in a lighted chamber of one of the pens. If it was the roach’s first time in the pen, it would immediately rush into the dark- ness. The current was then turned on, the shock of which would cause the roach to rush back into the light. Thereafter it would enter the dark chamber more cautiously. Each time it received a shock. After - a while it could not be induced to enter the dark chamber. These ex- periments were conducted with roaches of both sexes and of several different ages.
The speaker said he believed the majority of the students of compar- ative psychology would call the above described behavior a reversal of a negative phototropism; but he insisted that it was just as logical to conclude that the roach, by means of associative memory, had learned to avoid a specific dark place because of certain disagreeable associa- tions.
He further stated that he did not consider a learning curve a safe criterion for interpreting behavior, and based his statement upon the fact that Dr. Carr in experimenting with human beings in a maze ob- tained learning curves which, by the usual mode of interpretation, indi- cated a type of intelligence lower than that of the rat.
He also objected to adopting Professor Lloyd Morgan’s method of selecting the simpler of two equally plausible solutions of an example of animal behavior. Dr. Turner insisted that, in such cases, the be- havior should be experimentally analyzed; or else one should say frankly that the problem has not been solved.
In this case the behavior was analyzed by the following experiment: A roach which had thoroughly learned to refuse to enter the dark chamber of a pen resting upon the copper strips was transferred from that pen to a similar one resting on a different surface. In each case the roach would immediately rush into the dark chamber. The roach was then returned to the lighted portion of the pen resting on the cop- per strips. It then refused to enter the dark chamber. This was found to be true of numerous normal roaches of several different ages and of both sexes. Antennaeless roaches would enter the dark chamber under both conditions.
CONCLUSIONS.
1. By means of electric shocks roaches can be trained to avoid enter- ing a specific dark place. This is not a reversal of a phototropism; but the result of learning to avoid a specific dark place because of certain disagreeable experiences associated with it.
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Record. XXXV
2. Generally speaking, male roaches learn more quickly than female and young roaches are more apt than adults; but there are marked individual exceptions to this.
3. In the ability to learn and to retain what they have acquired roaches exhibit marked individuality.
4. Roaches that have acquired the habit of refusing to enter a dark place do not lose the habit when they moult. ;
5. Roaches that have learned to respond in the manner described continue to respond in that way even when several days elapse between experiments.
6. During sickness and just prior to death the retentiveness of the roach is much impaired.
Professor F. E. Nipher stated that he had recently obtained results which confirm his previous conclusion, that the strength of a steel magnet depends upon its electric potential. He has found this to be the case even when the magnet composed of a layer of fine steel wire is wholly enclosed in a covering of tin-foil.
Frsruary 17, 1913.
President Engler in the chair; attendance 36. The following donations to the Library were reported:
D. L. Harris. .Five pamphlets on the subject of rabies. A. S. Pearse..Four pamphlets on crabs. °
Professor F. E. Nipher addressed the Academy on “‘Hiffect of Electrification of Air on its Magnetic Per- meability.’’
Professor Nipher stated that he had recently found that when a steel magnet is insulated and connected to either terminal of an infiu-
ence machine, the other terminal being grounded, all points in the field of the magnet show an increase in magnetic intensity. There is an
» apparent increase in the magnetic moment of the magnet. This is
really due to an increase in the permeability of the surrounding air.
The magnet thus acted upon was one of two deflecting magnets, placed on opposite sides of a magnetic needle suspended from a silk fiber, within a metal cylinder. The motion of the needle was observed by means of a telescope and scale, through a small opening in the metal shield, which was closed by a sheet of glass covered with wire gauze, '
One of the deflecting magnets is put in contact with the influence machine. All disruptive effects are to be avoided. The needle shows a gradual deviation from the magnetic meridian, amounting to about four minutes of arc. This result is obtained even when the magnet is
XXXVi Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
wrapped in tin-foil, but not when it is within a large mass of cotton batting.
When the air around the charged magnet is disturbed by means of a palm-leaf fan, the deflection of the needle is not less than 15 seconds; its amplitude of vibration may be gradually increased, by operating the fan during alternate semi-vibrations. In this way the angle of vibra- tion has been increased to about four degrees of arc. In a similar manner it ean be quickly brought to rest.
This result seems to indicate that the electrified molecules of air be- have somewhat like iron filings in the field of the magnet.
Arrangements are being made to place the deflecting magnets in adjoining rooms. The electrified magnet being placed between two large sheets of glass, may make it possible to obtain photographs of the lines of force.
The deviations of the needle here observed are of the same order of magnitude as those due to momentary variations in the magnetic field of the earth.
Professor LeRoy McMaster read a paper on ‘‘The Preparation and Properties of Some Ammonium Salts of Organic Acids.’’
Professor McMaster described a method of preparing the neutral ammonium salts of monobasic and dibasic organic acids, and gave an account of some of the properties of these salts. The method consists, briefly, in dissolving the organic acids in absolute alcohol or ether and passing dry ammonia gas into the solution. By this method were easily prepared the neutral ammonium salts of succinic, tartaric, ortho and meta-phthalic acids, propionic, iso-butyric and benzoic acids. The neu-
_tral salts of malonic, malic and cinnamic acids were prepared with some difficulty. Analyses of the prepared salts were given and proved the compounds to be neutral.
Dr. Leo Loeb presented a communication entitled ‘Some Biological Aspects of Tumor Investigation.’’
Weismann stated that Protozoa and germ cells of metazoa are poten- tially immortal while the somatic cells of metazoa are moftal. As far as the Protozoa are concerned his statement was controverted by Mau- pas, R. Hartwig, Calkins and others. The recent experiments of Henri- quez and especially of Woodruff make it, however, very probable that. his conclusion was essentially correct. As far as the somatic cells of metazoa are concerned, Weismann’s conclusion was not warranted by facts, the evidence pointing merely to the conclusion that somatic cells can usually not reproduce the whole organism. The writer first pointed out in 1901 that facts established through experimental tumor investi- gation made it very probable that tumor cells are potentially immor- tal—as much as Protozoa and as germ cells. And a few years later he concluded further that, inasmuch as tumor cells are merely ordinary
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Record. XXXVii
somatic cells living under special conditions, the proof has been sup- plied—as much as that can be done—that ordinary somatic cells are potentially immortal. He also pointed out that this conclusion could still further be confirmed by serial transplantations of ordinary tissues in animals of various ages. He began such experiments a number of years ago and is continuing this work now under more favorable con- ditions.
Experimental tumor investigation has furthermore demonstrated that Many somatic cells have a potential power to proliferate, which ap- peared almost unthinkable until recent years. One single epithelial or connective tissue cell being potentially able to produce masses of cells which surpass many times the number of cells composing a whole an- imal of the same species.
Germ cells show definite rhythms, Certain Protozoa also possess defi- nite rhythms, as shown. by Maupas, R. Hertwig, Calkins and others. Bashford and Calkins maintained that tumors also possessed definite rhythmic changes. Investigations carried out by M. S. Fleisher in our laboratory show such rhythms do not exist in the case of tumors. If they exist in the case of other somatic tissues, they are not primary attributes of these tissues, but due to secondary mechanisms.
The death of Mr. Gilbert G. Morrison was announced.
Marcu 3, 1913.
President Engler in the chair; attendance 43. ! The following donations to the Library were reported:
LeRoy McMaster..Two pamphlets on the preparation of ammonium salts of organic acids.
Professor F. H. Nipher gave some further observa- tions on the behavior of the magnetic needle on windy and calm days.
Dr. R. A. Hall spoke on the ‘‘Fixation of Atmosperic Nitrogen.’’
Dr. R. J. Terry gave some of the results of his study of ‘‘The Development of the Cranium in Mammals. IT.’’
Dr. Terry stated that Weiss’s study of the occipital region of embryos of white rats revealed the fact that the dens epistrophei in these ani- mals is composed of two elements, the one generally recognized as com- parable with a centrum for the atlas, the other lying cephalad of this and forming the extremity of the dens. The latter is derived by inde- pendent chondrification in the tissue about the notochord cephalad of the atlas and where the former crosses the dorsal surface of the basal plate of the cranium. Weiss regarded this cephalic element as repre- senting the centrum of an occipital vertebra or a proatlas.
XXXViii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
The presence of an element in the dens epistrophei of cat embryos has been observed developing cephalad of the component identified as the centrum of the atlas and extending upon the basal plate of the cra- nium. This component is derived from the mesenchyma which, in the form of a cone traversed by the notochord, extends from the level of the atlas cephalad upon the basal plate and there lies in a deep median groove. Chondrification in this part of the dens occurs later than in that part related to the atlas, but the two processes appear not to be entirely distinct.
Mr. 8. 8. Knight presented a paper entitled ‘‘Some Microscopic Observations upon the Segregation of Im- purities in Carbon-Iron Alloys.”’
This paper was accompanied by some seventy-five slides, showing original work done in the field of metallography, and detailed largely the isolation and description of the impurities found in the form of phosphides, sulphides, silicides and cuprides as they occur in cast ma- terial, which has had no work done upon it.
Marcu 17, 1913.
President Engler in the chair; attendance 31.
Dr. E. G. Payne addressed the Academy on ‘‘Social Effects of Some Recent Child Labor Legislation in Missouri.’’
The law considered was section 1716, Revised Statutes of Missouri, . limiting the labor of children between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years to eight hours per day. The effect of the law is to exclude laborers under sixteen from factory employment, because of the inabil- ity of managers to use with profit laborers working on two schedules. An examination of available data relating to school attendance showed that laborers excluded are not in school. Also that the law has not tended to deter children affected by the law from leaying school when they become fourteen. The children between fourteen and sixteen are, therefore, in “blind alley” vocations; i. e., working as newsboys, errand boys, office boys, street vendors, drivers, delivery boys, etc., and upon the streets, unemployed. In so far as the work of the children is necessary for the family support the result has been bad, as there has resulted keen competition for the positions that are now open to chil- dren who are compelled to work, but are excluded from factory em- ployment. A study of data gathered by the Bureau of Labor, the Chi- cago School of Civics and Philanthropy, and the records of the Juve- nile Court in St. Louis showed that tendency to crime among children is most marked among those engaged in the “blind alley” vocations and among the unemployed. These data led to the conclusion that the law has resulted in serious evil consequences and that supplementary legis- lation is necessary to make the law effective.
Record. XXXix
Mr. Charles M. Gill presented ‘‘A Possible Explana- tion of the ‘Inferno’ at Fern Lake near Estes Park, Colorado.’’
The “Inferno” lies on the shore of Fern Lake, fourteen miles south- east of Estes Park, Colorado, and at the head of the canyon of the Big Thompson River.
The feature in question consists of a mass of rock fragments, four hundred feet in length and sixty in breadth, arranged so as to form an elongated oval depression. The rim consists of granite masses from four to twelve feet in diameter. The size of the boulders grades down to a diameter of about a foot at the bottom of the pit twenty feet below.
The topography of the entire region is glacial. The basin of Fern Lake is glacially scooped, and a moraine has raised the basin rim on the northeast side.
The hypothesis consists of three parts:—
1st. That the source of the material is the cliffs above the formation, This is borne out by the identity of the granites and the scarred cliff.
2nd. That the fall of material was probably due to earthquake. In the canyon below and in the foot of the cliffs in this region are other rock masses of about the same degree of weathering.
8rd. That the peculiar arrangement of the rocks results from the fall.of the mass upon a shallow glacier then filling the lake basin. When the ice melted near the cliff base, other masses were released. Upon the complete melting the larger fragments are found at the outer edge as is usual in glacial kettle-holes.
The degree of weathering is comparable with that of glaciated sur- faces of the same granite in this region.
The absence of even a trace of vulcanism precludes it as a cause.
Professor F. E. Nipher made some remarks on the effect of wind on the magnetic needle.
Aprin 7, 1913.
President Engler in the chair; attendance 69.
The following donations to the Museum and Library were announced: H. M. Whelpley ..Section of a fossil tree trunk from the Petrified For-
est, Arizona. Otto Widmann....A pamphlet on the birds of Estes Park.
Dr. G. O. James gave an illustrated lecture on ‘‘ How Worlds are Formed.’’ Dr. James discussed:
ist. Laplace’s theory of the formation of the Solar System. 2nd. See’s capture theory of the Planetary Systems.
xl Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
8rd. The heavenly bodies, especially the earth, as the home of living beings.
4th. Radiation and constitution of the sun.
5th. Dying of the sun. Origin of nebulae.
6th. Distribution of life through the universe.
Mr. Julius Hurter read a paper on ‘‘Cobras.”’
Aprin 21, 1913.
President Engler in the chair; attendance 35. The following donation to the Library was reported:
LeRoy McMaster..A pamphlet on the preparation and properties of the ammonium salts of some organic acids.
Dr. B. M. Duggar addressed the Academy on ‘‘The Significance of Color in Plants.’’
Dr. C. A. Todd read a paper on ‘‘Observations on the Migratory Flight of a Butterfly.’’
Anosia plexippus (Monarch) is believed not to hibernate in the colder parts of the United States, and, consequently, must migrate to escape frost. It migrates with the birds and much in the same fashion. A. plexippus is supposed to winter in the Gulf States. Butterflies, accord- ing to reasonable interpretation of their lives, are largely, if not alto- gether, automatic. The autumn migration of A. plexippus over great distances, always maintaining a fixed direction; when temporarily di- verted or checked, with mechanical promptitude resuming ‘that direc- tion (most remarkably so in a flight specially described in the paper), all this would lead logically to assume the operation of a force wholly external, a force that compels the insect to continue in a fixed direc- tion of line of flight, just as the magnetic needle, after having been dis- turbed from a state of rest, must resume its appointed place. The pres- ent trend of science aiming to obliterate the chasm hitherto supposed necessarily to exist between the natures of animate and inanimate things, would justify such comparison. In other words, we seem justi- fied in assuming that the migratory flight of A. plexippus is purely automatic, and possibly due to “magnetic” influence.
As this flight closely resembles that of birds, if it be not identical in the main features, the same theory is applicable to both.
Owing to the lack of universal and systematic observation of the flight, its full course and extent has not been mapped out. Such ob- servations will require united action on the part of all scientific bodies. Action in that direction should be initiated at Washington and might need to be extended over several years according to results.
Professor Robert A. Hall reported that he had suc- ceeded in preparing Neutral Tri-Ammonium Citrate.
Record. xli
Neutral Tri-Ammonium Citrate was prepared by passing an excess of dry ammonia gas into a well cooled solution of the water free citric acid in an anhydrous solvent.’ The yield is quantitative. Tri-am- monium citrate thus prepared is a stable, white, crystalline substance, not hygroscopic and not affected by the CO. of the atmosphere. It dis- solves readily in water and the freshly prepared solution is neutral to sensitive litmus, azo-litmin, corallin, methyl red, etc. Rigorous analy- ses of both the ammonia and the citrate content of the salt show it to be the triammonium citrate. Further investigation of its physical- - chemical properties are being made.
As the method of preparation is simple and inexpensive and the yield good it is evident that this means a solution of the difficult problem of the fertilizer chemist in the preparation of neutral ammonium citrate solution for the determination of the citrate insoluble phosphoric acid in fertilizer analysis.
May 5, 1913.
President Engler in the chair; attendance 29.
The following donations to the Museum and Library were reported: Edward Evers..One volume of Naturwissenschaftliche Rundschau and
two volumes of Globus. Fourteen pieces of Zuni pot- tery.
Professor M. E. Wilson gave an illustrated lecture on ‘‘The Geology of the Meramec Highlands Region.”’
Dr. Chas. A. Todd, who read a paper at the preceding meeting on ‘‘Observations on the Migratory Flight of a Butterfly,’’ exhibited fresh specimens of returning Monarchs (Anosia plexippus) badly battered, and bleached in color, showing evidence of travel and long exposure to weather.
May 19, 1913.
President Engler in the chair; attendance 51. Dr. Geo. T. Moore addressed the Academy on ‘‘Specu- lations on the Origin of Life.’’
‘This body was first prepared by this method two years ago at the time of the investigation of the Conductivity Method of Preparing Neu- tral Ammonium Citrate Solutions but a press of other research pre- vented its analysis and complete identification until the present time.
xlii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
JUNE 2, 1913.
President Engler in the chair; attendance 37. The following donation to the Library was announced:
Julius Hurter..Proceedings of the Seventh International Zoological Congress.
Dr. Hermann von Schrenk spoke on ‘‘ Recent Epidemic Appearance of Termites in St. Louis Houses.’’
Dr. H. M. Whelpey gave an illustrated account of ‘‘The Shrunken Human Heads of Bolivia.’’
Messrs. C. S. Mepham and J. Max Wulfing were elected to membership.
The death of Mr. Julian Bagby and Mr. Geo. W. Let- terman was reported.
GrorGeE WASHINGTON LETTERMAN.
With the death of Mr. George W. Letterman in Allenton, Mo., on May 28, 1913, there passed one of the few persons who have worked upon the botany of St. Louis and vicinity during their whole life time. His herbarium represents the flora of St. Louis county probably better than any other in existence.
While Mr. Letterman had worked especially in Missouri, he was an authority on the plants of the region included in eastern and northern Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas and Oklahoma.
George W. Letterman was born in Pennsylvania seventy-two years ago. While at State College in Center County, the Civil War broke out and young Letterman enlisted as a private, serving until the end of the war, when he was mustered out of the service with the rank of captain of volunteers.
He crossed the plains to New Mexico in 1866, returned to Pennsyl- vania, and again going west to Kansas with the idea of farming in that state, he settled finally in 1869 in Allenton, Mo., a hamlet about thirty miles west of St. Louis.
Here Mr. Letterman taught school for many years also serving as superintendent of schools in St. Louis county. }
Shortly after settling in Allenton, Mr. Letterman met August Fend- ler, the botanist, who had a farm in that neighborhood. This meeting stimulated his interest in plants, especially in trees. For Dr. Engel- mann Letterman made large collections of plants in the neighborhood of Allenton, with many notes on the oaks and hickories.
In 1880 he was appointed special agent of the Census Department of the United States to collect information about the trees and forests of Missouri, Arkansas, western Louisiana and eastern Texas. Later he collected specimens from the same region for the Jesup Collection of
Record. xliil & North American woods in the American Museum of Natural History in New York. The name Lettermani commemorates his numerous dis- coveries in these little known regions.
Octoser 20, 1913.
President Engler in the chair; attendance 46. The following donations to the Museum and Library were reported:
A. F. Onderdenk..Fifteen volumes of the Scientific American Supple- ment. ;
G. R. Agassiz.....Letters and Recollections of Alexander Agassiz with a sketch of his life and work.
Professor F. E. Nipher addressed the Academy on ‘‘Variations in the Harth’s Magnetic Field.’’
Dr. H. M. Whelpley gave an illustrated lecture on ‘‘Problems in America Archeology.’’
The death of Mr. Adolphus Busch, of Mr. Moses Craig, of Mr. Chas. H. Huttig, of Mr. Elias Michael, and of Dr. William Taussig was announced.
Novemser 3, 1913.
President Engler in the chair; attendance 26, Professor J. L. Van Ornum addressed the Academy on ‘‘Forests and Floods.”’ .
Professor Van Ornum outlined the complexity of the relation between rainfall and runoff. He then indicated that, while exceptions occur and greater differences exist, the general tendency of forests is to — somewhat equalize and increase the rainfall locally, to reduce evapora- tion from the soil, to prolong the melting of snow, to retard surface flow and to prevent the erosion of soil in hilly and mountainous coun- try. Yet the essential question is whether this tendency is potent enough to be important. The impossibility was shown of deductively determining the quantitative value of the forest influence, with any approach to satisfactory results, by attempting the evaluation of the different factors contributing to that influence.
Then four investigations were reviewed, in three of which no ap- preciable effect of extensive change in forest cover could be detected in the runoff phenomena, and in one of them the effect was apparent.
The conclusion was reached that the forest influence is sometimes considerable on watersheds of small area, but that it is slight on those of moderate extent and generally is entirely imperceptible in its effect on flood flow in the main rivers of large drainage basins.
xliv Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Messrs. A. F. Ewers, Benjamin G. Shackleford and Charles H. Slater were elected to membership.
November 17, 1913.
President Engler in the chair; attendance 18. The following donations to the Museum ane Library were reported:
CG. Hy Tarmers 24: Six pamphlets on entomology. BD Webbie 5.8. Biography and Unparalleled Discoveries of T. J. J. See.
H. M. Whelpley...A Flying Fox from the Philippine Islands.
Professor F. E. Nipher called attention to the well known equations for uniform motion of a load upon an inclined plane.
Some of the conditions which follow from the equations had never suggested themselves to him until recently, and inquiry had revealed the fact that they appeared new and interesting to his associates.
Let R= mg be the weight of a block which is drawn uniformly up a plane making an angle a with the horizontal. Let f be the coeffi- cient of friction. Let R’ be the component of R down the plane, and R” the component at right angles to the plane.
The force which will produce uniform motion up the plane is
P=R+fR’ = R(sina + feos a) ; (1)
Assuming R constant and a variable the force P will be a maximum when
a we cosa — fsinu = O. or when cota =f
This angle is the complement of the angle which the plane would make with the horizontal if P were made zero, and the block slides uniformly down the plane.
For this condition of maximum P
1 i+f? banca P=RV1+ f?
When f = 0.42, which is the value for an oak block upon an oak plank, P= 1.085 R. This force is therefore greater than that required to lift the load R by about 8%.
Record. | xlv
There are therefore two positions of the plane for which P= R, or for which
Sina + feosa = 1
This equation when solved as a quadratic gives
Nepal her” Ee AO Ah To aeh lth 2. Pe Fe ie | or Hence Cosa = 0 or
a = 90° or 44° 26’ If the force P is decreased to some value P, so that the block slides
uniformly down the plane, then
Pi, = R' — fR’ = R(Sin a — f cosa) (2)
This force P, is the force which horses must apply to a wagon in descending a hill, if they are to maintain uniform motion. Equations (1) and (2) may be written
y = sina + feosa.
When the final term has the + sign, y = P, and for the — sign, y = P;. The two curves which represent the values of yfor direct and reversed motion on the plane, are symmetrical in y with respect to the
4 sine-curve which represents both direct and reversed motion on the a frictionless plane. As f becomes smaller the two curves approach the sine-curve.
The work done in raising the mass m through any height heing W,, the work required to slide the mass up any plane having any angle of inclination through a vertical height h, is
W= W, (1 + feot a) This work increases as a decreases. It is W, when @ = 90°, and it is
2 W, when tan a = f, or the angle of the plane is the angle of friction. As a diminishes to zero, the value of W increases to an infinite value.
Professor Winthrop H. Chenery addressed the Acad- emy on ‘‘The Problem of Organization; a Criticism of Theodor Ostwald’s Der energetische Imperativ.’’
Professor C. A. Waldo described ‘‘A New Application of Electricity to the Production of Musical Tones.”’
xlvi Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Messrs. Jesse M. Greenman and Albert E. bask te were elected to membership.
DecremBerR 1, 1913.
President Engler in the chair; attendance 30.
Dr. J. M. Greenman addressed the Academy on ‘‘The Coastal-Plain Flora of Mexico.’’
Professor Wm. H. Roever spoke on ‘‘The Curve of . Light on the Dome of the New Roman Catholic Cathe- dral.’’
Dr. R. J. Terry, Mr. Otto Widman and Mr. Lewis M. Dougan were elected a committee to nominate officers for 1914.
In accordance with Article XX of the By-Laws the following changes in Articles XV and XVII were voted upon and unanimously adopted:
By-Law XV, entitled Initiation Fees and Dues, which read ;,
‘‘Resident active members shall pay an initiation fee of five dollars, and annual dues’ of six dollars, payable at the beginning of each year. Non-resident active members shall pay an initiation fee of five dollars and annual dues of one-half the dues for resident active members, payable at the beginning of each year.”’
to read as follows:
‘¢ Annual dues shall be paid at the beginning of each year. Resident active members shall pay annual dues of six dollars, and non-resident active members shall pay annual dues of three dollars. There shall be no initiation fee.’
By-Law XVIL, entitled Publications, which read:
‘Patrons and all active members not in arrears shall - be entitled to one copy of all the publications of the Academy issued subsequent to their election. Au- thors of papers shall be entitled to twenty extra copies of their individual papers.’’
Record. xl vii
| to read as follows:
‘‘Patrons, honorary members, and all active mem- bers not in arrears Shall be entitled to one copy of all the publications of the Academy issued subse- quent to their election. Authors of papers shall be entitled to twenty extra copies of their individual papers.”’
Mr. W. F. Monfort was elected to membership. DecreMBerR 15, 1913.
President Engler in the chair; attendance 34. The following donations to the Museum were reported:
Julius Hurter..27 species of Missouri snakes. 8 species of Missouri lizards. 8 species of Missouri turtles. 10 species of Missouri toads and frogs. 15 species of Missouri salamanders.
Dr. J. A. Warner gave an illustrated lecture on ‘‘The Process of Manufacturing Anti-Toxins.’’
The following report of the Nominating Committee was read:
Str. Louis, Mo., Dec. 15, 1913. To The Members, Academy of Science, St. Louis, Mo.
GENTLEMEN: Your committee, elected Monday, December Ist, to nom- inate officers for the year 1914, beg to submit the following report of nominations: ;
Oe TAG OE A Deh S52 aS Edmund A. Engler. For First Vice-President ................ Francis E. Nipher. For Second Vice-President ............... George T. Moore. For Recording Secretary ................ Charles H. Danforth. ' For Corresponding Secretary ............ George O. James.
MGR PLORSUTOR | a's 5 Sagi s @iojels ciei cid aie veld wed .H. E. Wiedemann. BOOS EHUSUETATE SW) dis 1615 cians whale eahuld dia elele wu otaeels Arthur E. Bostwick. BOE USUT CONE V's nate Nia aie wal c ie sieiel@hatd AlGie ore adie Julius Hurter.
Philip Rau.
Hermann von Schrenk. OLY DIP OCLOT Ee sane ated Giauid aioe giela ace Soaie aa Adolf Alt.
H. M. Whelpley. Respectfully submitted, (Signed ) O. WIDMANN, L. M. Dovean, R. J. Terry.
xlviii Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
The death of Dr. John Green and of Mr. Thomas D. Witt was reported. a
The President appointed Messrs. Hermann von Schrenk, Adolf Alt and Henry Schwarz a committee to draft resolutions on the death of Dr. John Green, past president of the Academy.
Mr. Roy M. Hilers was elected to membership.
Reports of the Officers. xlix
REPORTS OF OFFICERS.
TREASURER’S Report.
REcEIPTS. ORRIN REI Re Ba et eu ichG Ben ae L.'C G0! d S's aig lel hol elas coca sa “wate ome $ 348.07 MTOR UETOTY PACTOUGEM a Sl Sri Oe alla lal Gilg! alevele oe de occ v4 4 alle leet 1,570.75 UME TP ORI CORBY BOCIOUIOR . 65.0 Wiseb er idias ole wie kiv bloic o/elele dicip'ccateleelee 5 605.00 Pa TARE CEs aGICR AR NS GAS SEO AGA i ODES aR as WON an oon a AL 30.00 Academy's Tratisactions Bold’ ie cele wees c cess 18.70 Interest on balance ..... 7b SNARK TRE ATENEO 7 I BO aN EE a aa 30.20 SRCOMS LOM BNAO WHEN: TUNG 6) ye oie Wb isle owe vidielele B40 ves 0.0 805.56 [UOULAL COCCIDUR TOP THES VOAT. oer icin ebitice a ecas de ecets $3,408.28 EXPENDITURES. SNR es EAN neds Niclip' Ga gh or Sib, Grau lata A DACs Maan we wa Gowie big wlenciece: s $1,352.00 TOES GERARD GAS AOU RINNE Ye 1 1) 00. CNS a a ee 14.00 GOR GlOCHiC TENE and power 2... i i dade cee ce sees beens 81.47 | 1 Bana aes maa Peay ME 46a da ae ae MEU butte Law oe ole em 177.73 Telephone ........... Jee e sete eee en eens AUS RDA ES Malis sep Na Bae 54.15 MMI LIT gost ei cAU oP sa a\e. 6:0. oc6-Sees MUROE Ee ialcle alee eek we aem ' 769.66 ER OIOON ka nese va ci ba wlenbabuin eds de ele lbp ae: dale 576.07 mm AIE SS NU OUT o.oo ick fale eo a ba ee Date whe binlbale ae Cala Ouabicee 300.21 moter expenditures for the Wear iy iic oie ead vols w oe scape o's ote ‘8,325.29 Penaepe specemiver G1) 1918 ie. ca alk Kei CA A eile dg ciald 82.99 PANY $3,408.28 Respectfully submitted, . (Signed) H. E. WIEDEMANN, Treasurer.
LiprarRiAn’s Report
The Librarian reported that the accessions to the library for the year 1913 by exchange with 114 home and 306 foreign societies amounted to 671 volumes and 181 pamphlets, by donation 22 volumes and 24 pamph- lets, and by purchase 2 volumes.
The Transactions for the year were sent to 114 home and 306 foreign societies.
Report oF THE E}XNTOMOLOGICAL SECTION.
During the year the section held eight meetings, with an average attendance of ten. The meetings were interesting and instructive, and
] Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
all of the papers presented were freely discussed. At most of the meet- ings specimens were exhibited.
The following papers were presented:
February 26.——An Apparent Reversal of the Light Responses of the Common Roach, by C. H. Turner.
March 16.—The Fertility of the Cecropia Eggs in Relation to the Mating Period, by Phil Rau.
April 30.—Behavior of Certain Wasps, by Phil Rau. Love Dances of Certain Insects, by C. H. Turner. Some Remarks on the Life of Miss Murtfeldt, by Her- mann Schwarz.
May 29.—Orthogenesis in the Catocala’ Moths, Hermann and Ernst Schwarz. A Method of Mounting Butterflies for School Use, by Hermann Schwarz. : Mr. Phil Rau reported that the bag-worm, by constrict- ing the twig caused the death of that portion of the twig which lies beyond the constriction.
June 25.—Differentiation of the Four Families of Butterflies, by : Hermann Schwarz.
October 28.—Field Experiments on the Auditory Powers of the Cato- cala Moths, by C. H. Turner and Ernst Schwarz.
November 25.—Sleeping Habits of Certain Wasps and Butterflies, by Phil Rau. Review of Some Recent Articles in Insect Behavior, by Cc. H. Turner.
December 30.—Behavior of the Common Roach on the Maze; with a Brief Resume of the Use of the Maze in Comparative Psychology, by C. H. Turner.
In response to a letter received from Mr. Banks at the June meeting, Mr. J. T. Monell and Dr. C. H. Turner were appointed to serve on a National Committee of Nomenclature.
At the October meeting Mr. Hermann Schwarz reported that, on the 16th of October, 1913, he found on a clothes prop in his yard, a crysalis of Anosia plexippus. He was convinced that a Crysalis formed that late in the season would remain such throughout the winter; hence he considers this a hint that this butterfly hibernates in the pupal stage, instead of migrating southward and returning in the spring as is the common belief.
(Signed) Put Rav, Chairman, C. H. Turner, Secretary.
TRANS. AcabD. Sci. oF St. Louis, VoL. XXII. PLATE A
A DENTATE FLINT SPADE.
Found in Jefferson County, Missouri (one half natural size). H. M. WHELPLEY Collection
Dentate Flint Spades.
DENTATE FLINT SPADES.
At the meeting of the Academy for June 4, 1906,8 Dr. H. M. Whelpley exhibited a specimen of an Indian flint spade with the edge of the cutting end distinctly dentated by furrows extending back from one-half to one inch on both sides. (See Plate A.)
It is now generally believed that these furrows are the re- sult of the mechanical action of the soil on the flint. Iron spades, hoes and plow shares are sometimes similarly dentated after long use. The dentated flint spades are al- ways polished and show other evidences of much use.
Such spades are comparatively rare, but may occur wherever flint spades are found. Some are made of the light colored Mill Creek, Union County, Illinois, flint and others are from the brown “Tennessee flint.”
§ Transactions Vol. 16. p. CXX.
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THE BIOLOGY OF STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.*
Pur Rav anp Newum Rav. INTRODUCTION.
In attempting to carry on experimental studies on the color and color changes of Stagmomantis carolina, we found it necessary to learn more than has hitherto been recorded concerning many of the simple facts of the in- sect’s life history. The following pages embody the knowledge gleaned from three summers’ observations on the biology of a good many hundreds of living in- sects, either free in the garden or in captivity under individual observation.
The insect was first mentioned by Linnaeus in 1763, and after parading under a goodly number of generic and specific names, is today known as Stagmomantis carolina, belonging to the order Orthoptera and the family Mantidae.*
DiIstRIBUTION.
The family Mantidae is for the most part tropical. Only two species of this genus are at present known in the United States. Our species is found from Florida to Arizona, north to Maryland, Southern Illinois, Mis- souri, Kansas and Utah. Henshaw (1900) reports it from Rhode Island, and Baker (1905) from California.* That the species seems to be gradually working its way northward is evidenced by Rathvon’s Report (1862). He says that egg-cases brought from Maryland to Lancas- ter City, Pa., brought forth their broods and this intro- duced population persisted in this climate for twoor three consecutive seasons, withstanding the temperature of
*Presented before The Academy of Science of St. Louis, May 20, 1912. +Some of the common names are mule-killer, devil’s-horse, rear-horse,
camel-cricket, devil’s-riding-horse, Carolina mantis, praying mantis. For scientific names, see bibliography.
? Fide Scudder.
* Also reported from Mexico, Central and South America. See bibli- ography.
(1).
2 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
—10° F’. Even here in St. Louis the mantis population survives year after year, apparently unaffected by the occasional extremes of 15° to 20° below zero. Its fre- quent occurrence in this region was known to Riley in 1868, and during the years 1908-1911, old egg-cases were taken at Meramec Highlands, Mo., Créve Coeur Lake, Mo., and Forest Park, St. Louis, Mo., while the greatest source of egg-case supply was the board fences in gar- dens in the southwestern part of this city. Nymphs were also found at Falling Springs, IIl.
ANATOMY.
The internal or external anatomy of the insect has never been worked out to any considerable extent, but the following general notes may help to make clear the discussions which follow.
The head is attached to the prothorax by a flexible membrane, which makes it possible for the head to turn almost completely around (Plate I) and the animal when quietly at rest, awaiting its prey, stealthily moves its head in all directions, sometimes holding it in one difficult position for many minutes. The mouth parts are of course formed for biting. Besides the two com- . pound eyes, the head contains three simple eyes. Just how these function or what is their distance of vision is not known, but that they are highly developed for the purpose of distinguishing good prey, on the wing or moving about, is obvious. The insect will eye its victim serenely, sometimes for many minutes, before making the final leap, or back away from distasteful food when of- fered it.
The prothorax is greatly modified and bears the highly developed pair of forelegs. These appendages are ex- tremely useful to the animal for catching and holding its prey; without these in their highly developed spinal con- dition, the animal would have no means of offence or defence. Their power is really surprising; the sensation in placing one’s finger between them is anything but
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 3
pleasant. The two pairs of hind legs are used for carry- ing the body, while these are held high in the air, ever ready to pounce upon some unheeding prey.
The front coxa is so much enlarged as frequently to be mistaken for the femur (P!. XVIII, Fig.1) ; the femur and tibia are fully supplied with spines, and the five-jointed tarsus is comparatively small. The double row of spines on both femur and tibia are immovable; in addition to these we find in the adults of both sexes three spines, which are movable, located in the middle of the femur and between the two rows, as indicated in Pl. XVIII, Fig. 1, point X. When the tibia is folded against the femur, the large, curved spine at the end of the former fits nicely into the groove of the latter just behind these three moyable spines, while these bend nicely inward. This modification is of great advantage to the insect in holding prey. How some of the spines first beeame movable, and these situated just were they would be of most use, while the others remained inflexible, can be explained most - readily, it seems to me, by Natural Selection. This insect has been described and re-described and has had at least eight different names, but nowhere in the literature is mention made of these three spines which are movable. Evidently the descriptions were made from dead mate- rial; this shows the distinct advantage of working with living animals.
This high modification of the forelegs is correlated with a similarly modified prothorax (see Pl. XVIII. Fig. 1). It will be seen that the forelegs are attached to this part. How this correlation came about remains a problem of interest. It must be that Natural Selection again, while modifying the appendages to be of use to the insect for long reaching and powerful grasping, harmoniously modified the part that carries them as well. It would certainly be impossible for such an enormous pair of legs to be appended to the usual Orthopteran thorax. On the other hand, what use would economical Nature find in enlarging a part which carries only simple legs, such as
4 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
the other members of the group have? In other Orthop- tera such as the mole-cricket, we find the forelegs modi- fied for digging; in the grasshopper, cricket and katydid, the hind legs are developed for jumping, and in the roaches all of the legs are specialized for running. In all of these insects the thorax which carries all three pairs of legs is comparatively small, just as is the meso- and metathorax in the mantis, but here the prothorax which carries these forelegs is greatly enlarged. PI. XVIII, Fig. 1 shows clearly the comparative size of ihe parts.
To the meso- and metathorax are attached the two pairs of wings and the two hind pairs of legs. When nymphs are caught by the hind legs, they frequently walk away, leaving the limbs in one’s hand. These un- doubtedly regenerate, since individuals are not infre- quently found with one appendage which is smaller than the others. In the younger nymphs, which are fast mov- ing creatures, all six legs are used for locomotion. The adults are slow moving insects, especially so the females; they seldom use the forelegs for walking, but depend upon the hind legs alone for that purpose and keep the forelegs free for grasping prey.
The size and color of the wings differ in the sexes, as the illustrations show. The male can fly for a consider- able distance, much in the manner of a locust’s flight, but the adult female cannot fly, partly on account of her aborted wings and partly because of being heavily laden with eggs, although she spreads her wings to ease the fall when she drops to a lower surface. The males occa- sionally come to the lights, but I have yet to observe the first female there.
The function of the cerci is as yet little understood. Sharp (1895, p. 247) thinks that they assist the insect in emerging from the egg-case, and I shall later show how in the adult they may serve as sense- “organs in the fash- ioning of the egg-case.
| Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 5
Tue SrrucTuRE oF THE Kea-Case.
Before taking up the details of the emergence and the nymph forms, it will be well to get clear in mind the archi- tecture of the nest from which they emerge.
The egg-case is built by the mother mantis in the fall and the old insect dies with the approach of winter. The new organism hibernates in the egg-stage, amply pro- tected in the odtheca. ‘The number of individuals nor- mally contained in one of these cases varies from 36 to 140.
Photographs of 39 egg-cases (Pl. XV) will give an ade- quate idea of their general appearance and variation, while Pl. XVI shows the different sections and the details of architecture. We can best appreciate this picture if we imagine each egg-case to be a dwelling of many rooms (cells), grouped into two rows of suites of four rooms, each suite having a gallery which runs past the end of each room. This gallery has an opening at the top, through which the four occupants of the one suite emerge. The eggs are deposited-on end in the cells, and are in- clined toward the opening, so that any of the insects can emerge without disturbing the other occupants of the ootheca or of their own particular suite. Of course two insects cannot emerge from one suite at precisely the same time, but one may follow promptly after the other in single file, so very little interference occurs under this system. This arrangement of the cells is clearly shown in the cross-section, Fig. 7-8. The provision of separate galleries and exits for every four insects seems a won- derful economy of Nature.* Thus when common environ- ment or common age brings all of the occupants of the nest to maturity and ready for emergence simultaneously, the probable high mortality resulting from crowding around a common exit is avoided. This is why we ean examine an egg-case in the early morning and find not a trace of life, return in fifteen minutes and find the top literally teeming with struggling nymphs. Figs. 5 and 6
*For the method of making the egg case, see p. 40.
6 Trans. Acad. Scr. of St. Louis.
present the longitudinal section of the egg-case and show one room of each of whole number of suites. Fig. 5 still contains the empty egg-shells left by the emerging in- sects; in Fig. 6 they are for the most part removed. Figs. 1 and 2 are horizontal sections near the bottom and top (floor and ceiling) respectively. Fig. 1 shows dis- tinctly the arrangement of the cells in cross rows (cf. Fig. 4) which, with their galleries (Fig. 2) meet at the center of the structure in an obtuse angle. Here they are dovetailed together in such a manner as to present a ‘‘braided’’ appearance along the crest of the case, each fold of the braid being a flap, or the trap-door of one of the galleries. Figs. 3 and 4 show horizontal sec- tions of the egg-case through the middle, with and with- out the egg-shells in the cells. All of the horizontal views show the row of marginal cells surrounding the entire mass, and the heavy partition separating these from the egg-cells proper. These are present in all odtheca but are never used for oviposition. The purpose of these unoccupied marginal cells is not readily under- stood. We know that the egg-cases are cemented to flat surfaces; this would give ample protection against cold from the bottom. On the top we find the empty galleries which form an air-chamber between the outside covering of the case and the eggs. May it be that this row of unused cells is an adaptation for the lateral protection of the eggs from the cold or perhaps from the attacks of parastic impostors? Of course this is distinctly a southern species, and usually does not live above 40° latitude, and other members of this group are tropical. It is not fully known just how exits are made in the egg-cases of other species; it may be however that this character is a relic from some ancestor which used
lateral galleries for exits.
Tue Euercina Mantis.
In the spring of 1909, after the egg-cases had with- stood the natural weather conditions of the winter, 39
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. T
were gathered. These gave forth their young at the usual time, at intervals between the Ist and 20th of June.» In a previous year’s lot, when the eggs were kept indoors, hatching occurred during May, while a few egg-cases which were brought into the living room on De- cember 13, and kept at a temperature of 52° to 78° F., and occasionally moistened, gave forth active nymphs o February 10. "
The emerging of the mantis.was observed in many cases during three seasons. In every case almost with- out exception the insects left the odtheca during the early morning. In many instances 6 A. M. found them already emerged, and very seldom did they leave after 8:30 A. M.
Sharp (1895), p. 247, says that the last eggs deposited are the first to hatch. In this species I find that the eggs are deposited just as the egg-case is being made, and consequently the eggs at the broad, rounded end of the case are the first deposited, although the difference in time is very slight indeed. If the last eggs laid are the first to hatch, we should see all the emerging insects come first from the pointed end of the case. As a matter of fact, some egg-cases bring forth all of their young simul- taneously and others on two, three or four mornings, but all of my observations lead to the conclusion that in this species the emergence of the nymphs occurs without any regard to the priority of the deposition of the eggs.
One may examine a number of egg-cases at perhaps 6 A. M. and find them apparently ‘‘dead as a door-nail;’’ return in a quarter of an hour and find them teeming with struggling young, all of a honey-yellow color. Struggling young—yes, each one laboring to work its way out of the egg-case and then struggling to free itself from the bag-like membrane which encloses the body and is in turn attached by a silken thread to the bottom of the cell from which the nymph has just emerged.
* Riley recorded in 1869 that the eggs hatched in this locality between June 10th and 20th. It is interesting to note that this date persists so exactly after forty-three years.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
JUNE, 1909.
oO
11/12
13 |14
Parasites.
N
26
& & Bu S we a ow mw
105
103
71
108
ee
0/51/122/209
94/11] 280
wl
al to
111
None.
None.
15 P. Mantis on June 18. one.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
Infested by lar- vae of Anthrenus June 19 & 21. 25 P. Mantis. None.
11 P. Mantis on June 20.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
Entirely parasi
60 P. Mantis on May 25.
pT. Ogee iene ace ot
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 9
The accompanying table shows the number of insects that hatched each day from each of the 39 egg-cases. It will be seen that in just about one-half of them practi- cally all of the occupants emerged at one time, with only a few stragglers, and that in the remainder the emerg- ence continued through two or three mornings. The mean as well as the mode of emergence falls practically upon June 10.
A number of egg-cases were partially or entirely par- asitized by Podagrion mantis. In some cases these parasites emerged before and sometimes after the usual time for the emergence of the host. They do not leave by the openings provided, but bore their own exits in the top and sides of the case. These holes are to be clearly seen in Y, Z, BB and NN in Pl. XV. Not a great deal is known of the life history of this Chalcid. The eggs are deposited in the egg-case in the fall and the adults emerge during the following May and June; just how the parasites spend their life from this time until the following September or-Qctober when the odtheca are again deposited and hosts supplied would be an inter- esting discovery. The fact that they are mature at emergence would lead one to conclude that they should be ready at once for mating and oviposition.
A few were infested by the larvae of Anthrenus (sp?). Whether these beetle larvae feed upon the odtheca as well as on the living eggs is not known, but at any event they injure the egg-case sufficiently to destroy the develop- ing embryos. |
Four egg-cases, while apparently not parasitized, gave forth only 5, 1, 1 and 5 insects respectively. Five others of apparently similar condition produced no young whatever. I suspected that these latter ones contained infertile eggs, and later in the season discovered that unfertilized females construct normal egg-cases.
Our table shows the greatest number to hatch from any one egg-case to be 140 and the minimum 0 in seven
10 Trans. Acad. Scr. of St. Louis.
cases, making an average of 58 for the entire lot. If however we take into account only the twenty-one per- fectly good and normal egg-cases we find the minimum 36 and the average 91. These figures are, of course, for the emerging nymphs and not for the eggs. A. A. Gir- ault (1907) opened 20 cases in November and counted the eggs. He found the numbers to range from 49 to 115, with an average of 88. The close agreement of Girault’s average of eggs in November and mine for the emerging nymphs in June shows that there must be a remarkably low elimination during this stage, in un- parasitized egg-cases.
The eggs and nymphs while in the odtheca are of a yellowish color, excepting that for about a week before the time of emerging the eyes of the embryo are highly pigmented. And at about this time, the distal part of the femur of the hind pair of legs, and a small portion of the head between the eyes, are of a brownish red color. The abdomen is also very slightly so marked. After the insect emerges these markings are conspic- uous. Cockerell (1898) who has written upon species of this genus (either 8. carolina or 8S. limbata) says that _ “the eyes are at first sage green, but soon after the emergence of the insect they become blackish.’’? In our species, not alone at emergence are the eys black, but for some time before as well. To be exact, when the egg- cases were opened on May 15, the eye spots, were but slightly pigmented; on May 22, they were very much so, and became more and more intense from day to day. Thus pigmentation of the eyes occurs from about 15 to 30 days, before hatching.
Upon breaking the walls of the egg-case shortly be- fore hatching, one finds the young nymph attached to its cell by a short silken thread. This thread seems to leave the rear end of the body and can be drawn out to a considerable length with a needle. By observing the egg- eases early in the morning on the day of emergence, one
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 11
can see the tiny heads pushing their way up out of the ‘‘trap-door.’’ By a series of backward and forward move- ments the insect rises higher and higher out of the cell, until it lies entirely on the top, where it rests quietly for a moment as if preparing for the ordeal of shedding the membranous, sac-like covering which encloses the entire body.® As the insect rests one can with the microscope see the two silken threads which seem to leave the cerci, and which soon converge into one heavier thread which apparently leads back to the floor of the cell from which the little nymph has just emerged.
The insects just after leaving the egg-case are shown, enlarged, in Figs. 1 to 5, Pl. XVII. They are still en- closed in the tightly-fitting, membranous sac which is held in position by the silken threads (Fig. 2). After a few moments the thorax begins to enlarge and a lump appears behind the head, which becomes larger and larger until the condition shown in Figs. 1 and 3 is reached. As this lump increases, the head bends further and further downward against the ventral surface (Figs. 4 and 5), causing the prothorax simultaneously to be- come elongated and rounded until we see the rupture of the tegument; the enlarging of the prothorax seems to push the skin apart causing an opening, and as this or- gan expands the old skin is pushed further and further back. This bag-like membrane encloses the entire or- ganism, and holds the legs and antennae fast, close to the ventral surface of the body.
This shedding process was long thought by many naturalists to be the first ecdysis, but as neither the antennae nor the legs cast their skin, but the membrane enfolds them as well as the entire body, I do not see how this can hold; neither can this covering be the egg-shell, for we have seen that the egg-shell is left in the egg-case at emerging. In again referring to the casting of this
*The hind pair of tarsi protrudes from the sac-like covering, and may have aided the insect in emerging.
12 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
membrane immediately after hatching, my observa- tions are entirely in accord with those of Cockerell who, in criticising Sharp, points to the fact that the shedding of this envelope is not a real ecdysis. As I have already shown, this membrane binds the appendages to the body. When this is shed, it merely liberates these organs. - Were this a real ecdysis, we should see the skin peel from the legs and antennae separately, as well as from the body.
The skin splits and the prothorax becomes quite large, and in so expanding frees this organ and the head. In examining the old skin we find that part which imme- diately covers the head to be more heavily chitinized; this ‘‘cap’’ surely protects that organ as the nymph butts its way out of the egg-case.
The animals seem to have enlarged considerably within the few moments, and the head and thorax are entirely free. The skin thus far removed hangs beneath the ventral surface of the prothorax with that heavily chitinized head covering distinctly visible. The antennae are tightly stretched along the ventral surface, terminat- ing somewhere near the anus, reminding one: of two tightly stretched telegraph wires. The legs are also vis- ible through the transparent membrane, all nicely folded close against the abdomen.
It is now necessary for the remainder of the covering to be removed, and this is done, strangely enough, by the antennae. I have already shown that the head bends downward and that the two antenna which issue there- from are tightly stretched along the ventral surface, terminating near the cerci. The head by a series of bend- ings backward and forward alternately tightens and loosens these cords (antennae). With each backward and tightening motion the skin slips further and further back until the legs are free; these then assist in remoy- ing the skin until it slips off over the cerci. The insect is then entirely free and runs away with astonishing
ti
hi Mi ii :) ie Sy :
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 13
sprightliness, leaving the sac still attached by the short silken thread to the egg-case. The mantis as it leaves the old skin is almost twice the size of the emerging form, even though this entire process occupies but eight to fifteen minutes from the moment the bead-like head pushes through the trap-door to the time when the nymph scampers away from the newly-shed covering. The insects hang to the odtheca by means of the threads for only a very few minutes and not,as Sharp says, ‘‘for some days until the first change of skin is affected.’’ When one views the shrivelled little sac left hanging from the egg-cell, one marvels that it really was sufficient to cover the entire insect. The length just at emerging is about 5 mm., and a very few minutes later, after the envelope has been removed, it has increased to about twice this size.
The eggs all develop in their cells with the part which forms the head nearest the exit, so the emerging insect will have little difficulty in pushing its way through. Hither the eggs must be deposited right end up along with the making of the case, or the egg-mass in the early stages of its development must turn about in the shell and thus come to a proper position. Gravitation can- not be the controlling agency in this case, because the egg-cases are built at all angles with the direction of. the force of gravity. Out of eighty egg-cases observed during two years, I found only one exception to this po- sition of the egg. In this instance, while many tiny heads were appearing all over the crest of the case, from one cell the caudal end of the body and a pair of tarsi appeared. The nymph made a brave struggle to emerge, but after a few minutes it was found dead.
Tue Movutine Process.
How often the mantis moults is not precisely known, Howard (1901) says it moults at least three times; most
14 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
other writers on this species mention nothing about the process. Sharp, in speaking generally of members of the family Mantidae, says that they moult six times. In all of my work with this insect, I have never been able to carry one individual through from the first instar to the last while in confinement. Their rearing is rendered very difficult by the facts that they are entirely carniv- orous, attacking only live prey as it moves about, and it seems they also require a variety of diet which can- not be supplied at all times, especially when large num- bers are cared for and each insect on account of its can- . nibalistic habits must be kept in a separate cage. During one season when an attempt was being made to as- certain the exact changes in size and color of these ani- mals, about a hundred of the ordinary household fly- traps were obtained, a mantis placed in each, and the bottom compartment of the trap daily filled with stale beer. This attracted the flies which would eventually find their way to the apartment above which was occu- pied by the mantis. This arrangement was of course a sort of self-feeder and gave us but little trouble, but the insects never lived long under these conditions. Whether it was the lack of variety of food, or the diet of intoxi- cated flies that caused their death is not known. Only recently it has been discovered that the mantis nymphs require water, and greedily partake of any offered them on a small brush or sprinkled on plants in the cage. But although it was impossible to carry even one insect through its entire life cycle, enough data were procured to show conclusively that the animals go through at least six moults exclusive of the shedding of the membran- ous sac just at emerging.
The date of hatching of the insects is from June 1 to 20. The following notes on the time of moulting and the size and color of the insect at that period will help to clear up this problem of the number of moults and the rate of development.
—
eas
Dll eae tt
ch ee
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 15
No. 100. June 22, this green insect was taken.’ After moulting the same day the color was still entirely green; length, 15 mm. July 3, moulted; color, legs green, dorsal thorax and abdomen greenish with light brown patches; length, 19 mm. July 7, entire dorsal surface light brown. July 12, entire insect straw-colored excepting all the legs which were still greenish. July 13, moulted; entire body and forelegs brownish; two pairs of hind legs still green; forelegs not as decided brown as the body, but showed a transition stage between green and brown; length, 22 mm. Aug. 8, moulted; all brown excepting hind legs; length, 28 mm.; died.
Thus we see that this insect showed the following rate of development for the part of its lifetime under obser- vation:
MUNG cs 2d MOM ase she ss 15 mm. ny oy) SFO PAOUN cee s Wes ke ss 8s 19 mm. UE hoy) 40M WAOUIES eee eee a ecg 22 mm. Aug: 8, Sth moult.......:: a) a 28 mm.
Whether a moult occurred before the length of 15 mm. was attained on June 22, and whether any more would have occurred after Aug. 8 and 28 mm., had the insect lived, must be supplemented from notes on other indi- viduals.
No. 110. June 23, taken; color green; length, 14 mm. July 5, moulted; green with brownish spots on the dorsal surface of first three abdominal segments; length, 21 mm. July 14, moulted; straw- color, with only four hind legs green; length, 25 mm.; died.
So while only two moults could be observed in this insect, they correspond rather nicely in dates and size with those of No. 100.
No. 111. June 23, taken; yellowish green; length, 16 mm. July 1, moulted; yellowish green; length, 18 mm. July 3, no moult observed, but length was 22 mm. July 10, moulted, entirely light brown except- ing two pairs of hind legs and coxae of forelegs; length, 25 mm.
No. 108. June 23, taken; entirely green; length, 16 mm. July 1, moulted; all light brown excepting coxae of front legs and all of the four hind legs, which were green; length, 18 mm. July 12, moulted; entirely medium brown excepting legs as described before; length, 25 mm.; died.
*The colors and changes will be again referred to later. ® For first moult at 10 and 11 mm., observed on other insects, see p. 16.
16 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
No. 130. July 7, taken; entirely green; length, 20 mm. July 12, moulted; still greenish but not a clear color; length, 27 mm.; died July 16. 4
No. 102. June 23, taken; color, green; length, 12 mm. June 23, moulted; green; length, 14 mm. July 3, moulted; greenish straw color excepting two hind pairs of legs and coxae of forelegs which were still completely green; length, 17 mm.; died.
No. 103. June 23, taken; green; length,15 mm. June 30, moulted; dark straw color; length, 18 mm.; died July 11.
No. 104. June 23, taken; entirely green; length, 12 mm. June 30, moulted; abdomen yellowish, dorsal prothorax light brown, remainder green; length, 16 mm. July 9, moulted; entirely straw-colored ex- cepting tibia of middle pair of legs, which were still green; length, 20 mm.
No. 109. June 23, taken; green; length, 16 mm. July 3, insect had probably moulted and skin been lost in the leaves; color now dark straw-color; length, 18 mm. July 5, completely straw-colored, with just a faint trace of green on tibia and femur of two hind pairs of legs. July 12, moulted; light brown with heavy black spots on legs; length, 22 mm.; died.
No. 101. June 23, taken; green; length, 12 mm. June 26, moulted; green; length, 15 mm. June 28, part of abdomen yellowish brown. July 3, dorsal and ventral part of abdomen dark brown, dorsal surface of thorax gradually changing to brown; head, all the legs and the ventral surface of thorax still grass green. July 9, moulted; entirely brown excepting the greater part of each of the four hind legs and coxae of forelegs; length, 18 mm. July 22, moulted; color same as before; length, 22 mm.
These notes made during 1911 support with only very slight variations the phenomena noted above, pointing to the conclusion that four moults occurred between June 22 and Aug. 8. From the table below it is evident that another moult (the first) occures previous to that time, when the insect is 11 to 14 days old.®
Hatched. Moulted. Length. Color.
June 11 June 22 10 mm. Yellowish
June 7 June 21 Dark brown
June 7 June 21 11 mm. Greenish
June 11. June 24
June 11 June 24 :
June 11 June 24 10 mm, Head, thorax and appendages light green; abdomen blackish
June i1 June 21 11 mm. Light green
June il June 24 10 mm. Green with black spot on
{ prothorax where legs join
*From notes made in 1910.
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 17
‘This, with the four moults previously described, gives us five moults. At this fiith moult the wing pads are highly developed, and the insect measures from 28 to 32 mm. in length; it is now in the instar immediately pre- ceding adulthood, when one more moult completes the process of development, and the insect attains a size of 48 to 60 mm.’°
It is hardly possible that a moult could have escaped observation. Hence we may feel confident in concluding that there are at least six months and seven instars in the life cycle of our mantis.
Pagenstrecker (quoted by Packard, Text-Book Ent., p. 616), finds that the Mantis religiosa moults seven times, having eight stages in its development, including ‘‘that before the amnion is cast.’’ Hence we arrive at the same conclusion, for in our species we have six ecdyses and seven instars exclusive of the shedding of the envelope just after emerging, which, as we have seen, can hardly be regarded a true moult.
Of course when circumstances are such that individ- uals cannot live to maturity in confinement, and since sex cannot be distinguished until late in the insect’s life cycle, it has not been determined finally whether males and females pass through the same number of moults | in their development. It may be possible however that the conditions of confinement, food, temperature, etc., may influence the size of the insect and the time of moulting, but it seems hardly probable that it could cause a variation in the regular, established number of moults.
It is extremely difficult to handle a delicate and per- versely active little nymph which insists upon rearing up the abdomen in a semicircle while he is being meas- ured. The measurements from life were all made under these difficulties,.and may err slightly either way.
_” This measurement is for adults that were not confined in the earlier stages.
18 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
In 1910 the first adult female appeared on Aug. 16. In 1909 the first gray female came to maturity on Aug. 3 and the first green one Aug. 9. All these were taken in the open, where development would probably be a little more rapid than in confinement.
The nymphs of the two sexes are very similar and cannot be distinguished by appearance until the instar just preceding adulthood. In the adults, the difference in the size and shape of the bodies is so great that they might easily be mistaken for two distinct species. The male has a long, slender body completely covered by the wings; the body of the female is much broader and the wings are aborted so that they cover only a part of the body.
. MerHop or SHEDDING THE SKIN.
The method of moulting is the simple one character- istic of most Orthoptera. The skin splits along the prothorax and the insect works its way out; usually the head and prothorax are pushed through the opening first, and the abdomen and legs are freed later. Fre- quently the smaller nymphs hang with the hind pair of tarsi interlocked around a twig while undergoing this metamorphosis.
In Pl. XVIII, Fig. 2 we see a twelve-day insect (34 natural size and enlarged) undergoing its first real ecdy- sis. The body is wholly free and the insect is struggling to extricate its legs from the old skin. Pls. XI, XII, XIIT show the nymphs after the fourth moult, when the wing- pads are first apparent.
The mantis all hatch at about the same time and, when the insects are free in nature, the whole population seems to moult at about the same perid, so the rate of development of all the individuals is kept about parallel. In other words, when one finds mantis, say in June or September, they are almost always all very much alike in size and form. Hence we do not find, as Rathvon (1862) records, that the ‘‘mothers often feed upon their
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 19
own young,’’ for the parents have all died the year before, nor do the adults ever get a chance to feed upon nymphs, for the time is short when the instars overlap. Thus we seldom find the insects in more than two stages at the same time.
Foop Hastts.
The mantis is entirely carnivorous. In this respect. it differs radically from the other members of the fam- ily Orthoptera. It will attack only insects in motion. The very small nymphs in confinement were fed upon plant-lice, while the larger ones were fed flies, grass- hopper nymphs, small crickets, etc., although where many mantis were caged together their principal diet seemed to be one another. The nymphs are cannibal- istic, and in the adults, the females alone seem so. I have seen them devour one another as well as eat the males, but never yet have I seen an adult male attack either a female or another of its own sex. Whether the male nymphs are cannibalistic could never be ascertained with absolute certainty because the sexes are indistin- guishable in the earlier stages.
The mantis have been observed to feed upon the following organisms:
Nymphs of cockroaches; (Blatia orientalis) the white ones four days old were highly relished. Nymphs and adults of the German roach Blattella Germanica. Colorado potato bugs, discarding hard parts. Larvae and adults of Grapta interrogations Fab. Hairy caterpillars and others. The common tomato-worm (larva of the Sphinx-moth). Aphids. Male adults of the Bag-worm (Lepidoptera). Ants. Adults of the May-fly (Ephemeridae). Honey-bees. House-flies. The cucumber beetles Diabrotica 12- punctata and Diabrotica vittata were greedily de-
voured. Blister Beetles, Epicauta pennsylvanita ~
(De G). Pennsylvania soldier beetle, Chauliognathus pennsylvamcus De Greer. Also Chauliognathus
20 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
margimatus Fab. Lace-wing adults, Chrysopa Sp. Crickets. Cabbage butterflies, Pieris rapae. Nymphs of grasshoppers and locusts. Frog, about one-half inch in length, was held in the forceps and kept in motion before the mantis. The frog was seized and about one-fourth devoured.
- Many kinds of food insects were offered to the mantis upon forceps. Potato-bugs were refused when the inseet was not terribly hungry; robber-flies (Diptera) and stink-bugs (Hemiptera) and very large grasshoppers were always rejected. The insect never hesitated to jump at the forceps bearing palatable bits, and never delayed to back away when a distasteful morsel was offered. From this I would infer that the sense of smell or of sight, or both, must be highly developed.
A bag-worm larva removed from the cocoon was offered to a number of mantis, but in every case but one it was refused. In this case the mantis at first ran away very fast from the forceps carrying the larva, but stopped and turned its head around, and when I insisted again it grasped the ‘‘bug,’’ put it to its mouth and im- mediately dropped it to the floor in apparent disgust.
One mantis was observed making an attempt to grasp a wasp (Polistes Sp.), but after eyeing it for a few sec- onds the mantis jumped away. I followed with the Polistes in the forceps, but it would dodge from one side to the other when the wasp was thrust directly in front of its mouth. In a later experiment, a mantis ate the head and part of the abdomen of a male wasp (Polistes Sp.).
A mantis attempted to devour a white moth (family Arctiidae) by biting into it at the thorax near the basal part of the left wing. After the wing had been severed the insect continued its efforts to penetrate the hard chitin. Making no headway it left the insect clinging to the wire screening. After about five minutes it re- turned and again began to bite away at it at the same
Rau—The Biology of Sitagmomantis Carolina. 21
spot; after two minutes persistent effort it became dis- gusted and dropped the moth to the floor. ‘aking it in my forceps | again offered it to her repeatedly, but she persistently refused. ‘his mantis must have been pretty hungry, but still had not the ‘‘ability,’’ ‘‘wisdom”’ or ‘*foresight’’ to know that by trying at a point further down, the soft parts of the abdomen would be found. My second insect made a like refusal, but in a third ex- periment the mantis began by devouring the caudal end of the moth, eating headward, and in fifteen minutes it had consumed the entire insect. Of course it was prob- ably wholly accidental that the last mantis found the soft parts first.
A small nymph, aged 17 days, was seen to feed upon two small Hymenoptera one morning. At 6:30 ‘it pounced upon one, and holding it fast in the forelegs began to devour it. After two and a half minutes, what- ever remained was held in the mouth while the second was seized; this was held tightly, while the first was being devoured,—and this without any help from the forelegs in holding the first. This was entirely eaten in five minutes, immediately after’ which, the second was consumed in eight minutes. Perhaps the first was eaten hastily to prevent the possible escape of the second.
A marked mantis, whose entire prothorax was thickly covered with green paint, was devoured, paint and all, by a comrade, and so far as I could see agreed perfectly well with the insect.
The adults have the most human characteristic of breaking large prey in two parts, one ‘‘hand’’ holding one portion to the mouth while the other tightly holds the second course in readiness.
While the nymphs are greedy eaters, I believe that the adults, at least the older ones, can get along for a considerable time without food. At one period of three days early in September when food was very difficult to obtain, out of 28 caged specimens which had no food, only
22 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
5 died; hence we have no reason to conclude that even these died from this particular cause. The adult males require little food, and in confinement seem to live as long as the females.
The males do not eat while in copulo, since their fore- legs are used for clinging. The females, however, having these appendages free, lose no opportunity to grasp a choice morsel,
Again referring to the cannibalism of the mantis, Pl. VII shows a gray and a green female in combat to the death. The spiny forelegs of each are locked about the thorax of the other, and the head of the fair one (green) is about to sever.
E\NEMIES OF THE MANTIs.
Small red ants were once accidentally introduced into the cages along with the aphis. Instead of the carnivor- ous nymphs eating these also, the ants although much smaller, immediately fell upon them, first severing the legs at the joints and then dismembering the other parts of the body, while the struggling mantis tried to get away. It was at first thought that the ants behaved thus in order to protect their dairy, but it was later dis- covered that they carried away all the parts of the dead mantis, evidently cherished as palatable bits. The mantis when older, however, reversed the attack and greedily devoured the ants.
Another grave enemy to the eggs is the Podagrion mantis already referred to, and in all probability the larvae of Anthrenus sp. also. A spider was once seen devouring a mantis nymph. What part birds play in keeping their numbers in check is unknown, but both sexes, dead or alive, were greedily eaten by poultry, and even the egg-cases, both old and new, were likewise devoured. |
Upon one occasion when I was testing the ability of the mantis to capture and kill honey-bees, one’ was tied
en ee Oe ee ee ee Le oe ee eee
vee,
Se
————
i SPS
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 23
near the bee-hive entrance by a silk thread around the. prothorax. The mantis received two severe stings on’ the side of the abdomen where the chitin is very thin. The animal bent the body around in a eirele and bit frantically around the wounds, perhaps injecting saliva —I could not discern. An hour later each wound was covered by a drop of fluid and that side of the abdomen was much swollen. The insect survived, however, and soon behaved quite normally, mating three’ days later.
It was noticed that the mortality was unusually great at two or three days after emergence. Food was plenti- ful, and cannibalistic habits were not carried on to a great extent. It was discovered by the aid of the micro- scope that the insects at the time of emerging, as well as the egg-cases, were teeming with mites,’! which in all probability caused their death.
Conor.
We know that all mantis at hatching are of a light yellowish color, the eyes alone being pigmented. Within a few hours this color becomes darker. The color of the immature insects at any stage after the first moult is not constant, but varies from a grass green to a dark, mottled gray, almost black, and including a vast variety of dull yellows and browns. It frequently occurs that a single individual will exhibit many or all of these colors - in varying combinations.
In the adult females we find the same conditions in the coloration of the body. In addition the wings are green, yellow or one of a variety of shades of gray, or mottled. Sometimes we find a brown adult female with green wings and sometimes a green one with brown wings. The males do not exhibit such a marked variety of color, but are usually extremely dark and the wings mottled, although a good many of them have green legs, and occasionally one occurs with green body, head and
“Tdentified by Dr. H. E. Ewing as Pediculodes ventricosus Newport.
24 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
appendages, but never yet has a male been tound with green wings. In some ot the males the wings are hyaline, but observation has shown that this condition usually exists for a short time after moulting and before the pigment is distributed. in many the two pairs of hind legs seem to acquire the darker color before the front onés do; many are seen with the hind legs dark gray while the front pair are still green. ‘hese are always in contact with the material upon which the insect rests, the dull, dark bark of trees, etc., while the front ones are held high in the air.
Near to the center of the wing is a highly pigmented and clearly defined spot which is very conspicuous in the green winged insects, but not so much so in the dark ones. The utility of these is not at once apparent, although one is likely to suspect at first thought that they are to give an aggressive appearance when the fe- male raises her wings in the attitude of fight. When the insect. is at rest, one wing partly overlaps the other . sometimes covering this pigmented spot.
Little is precisely known concerning the regulation of colors in this insect, but it has hitherto been generally thought that the males were brown and the females green (Howard). Riley (1869, p. 170) says: ‘‘The green form is almost entirely confined to the female sex and seems to be the most common color of this sex when full grown.’’ According to Scudder (1896) this dimorphic female was for a time specifically divided, the gray one being called dimidiata and the green one carolina. But in criticism of this he says that since the two forms occur in the United States he cannot see how they could be specifically separated, since there is no similar distine- tion in the male, which is never entirely green.
My own observations have fully satisfied me that the adult females appear not only in the green form (PI. I) and in the gray (Pl. V)'* but also in every gradation
2 See also Plates VI and VIII.
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 25
and combination of these colors between these forms
illustrated, and that these variations can be found in every stage of the insect’s lite cycle after the first moult. As already stated, the color of the male does not vary so greatly, but still green-bodied insects are found.
The color of the mantis certainly serves to protect it, even though the green insects are not always on green leaves, nor the dark ones on dull bark.. The photographs nicely show how, when resting on foliage, their color seems protective, and their appendages blend well with the twigs. In spite of the fact that, so far as I can see, no discrimination is shown in the selection of their back- ground, the insects blend beautifully with their sur- roundings; their form as well as their color seems to make them inconspicuous amid the lights and shadows of the foliage. Thereby they are protected from the attack of enemies and aided in successfully stalking their prey. Of course that does not necessarily mean that their coloration came about on that account. Perhaps this phenomenon can best be explained by Beddard, who says: ‘‘It is often not easy to find a sixpenny piece, which has been dropped on the carpet, but the reason for this is, not that the coin is protectively colored, but that any small object no matter how colored is difficult to discover amid a variagated environment.’’
In fact the younger nymphs, with their wings not yet developed, were harder to find than the adults. Usually when insects were needed, sweeping the shrubbery with a net had to be resorted to, although both nymphs and adults were not infrequently to be found stretched across some bright flower waiting for insects, and were ex- tremely conspicuous, but on such plants as the tamerack, iris, hops and canna, the green ones were always incon- spicuous. Blending so‘nicely with their environment may be instrumental in securing their prey, but to what extent this protects them from birds, toads and other enemies is not known, although Di Cesnola’s experiments
26 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Lows.
upon the Huropean species point to the conclusion that it does afford protection. |
One wonders about the value of Rae doboieton when one sees a dark gray female, resting on a green tamarack, very conspicuous indeed, greedily devouring one which is green. But again in contrast to this, when the green nymphs are at rest on the clematis or hop vines and an attempt at their capture is made, they dart from leaf to leaf, quickly turning to the under side, then drop to another and vanish in less time than it takes to tell.
CoLor CHANGE.
We have seen in the chapter on the moulting process that the insects at hatching are all alike of a light yellow color. Just after the first real ecdysis they occur in many colors, the two extremes being distinct green and dark brown. We have seen that green insects gradually change to brown;'* this may be due to the color of the environment. My attention was first attracted to this by the following observations upon nymphs and adult females which were kept for other notes.
In the first instance the cage contained no potted grass nor green things of any kind, and the insects could rest upon nothing but the almost black wire screening of the cage. It seemed to me that the ventral surface of this adult female—the part in constant contact with the screening—became darker from day to day. Whether this happened on account of the environment or in mere coincidence is not known, but we must not fail to con- sider that this was a full-grown, winged insect when placed here. :
In the second case the adult insect when placed in the cage was entirely green, both body and wing. After being there for thirty-four days until its death, we found the wings and the abdomen under the wings still green,
73 See pages 15, 16.
eS SEs
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 27
shading into brown at the exposed parts, while the ventral and lateral parts, as well as legs, head and thorax,—in fact all constantly exposed parts—were dark brown.
On another occasion several green females in the next to the last instar were placed in a breeding cage together with several pots of growing grass which would serve as a background and foothold for both the mantis and their prey. During a heavy shower the cages were taken into an outbuilding, and fortunately or unfortunately they were forgotten there for about a week. During this time the grass died and turned straw. When they were discovered the mantis had devoured one another, but the two survivors which were found with difficulty had become adult, and there they were—body, legs, wings
~ and all just the right shade of straw color.
This led to other work with the insects. The difficulty of maintaining in one’s own home a large number of
animals which are cannibalistic, voracious and carnivor-
ous, and which require 4 variety of living food can perhaps be imagined.
In an experimental way I tried to find just how and why the colors changed and if environmental conditions were the sole causal factor. For three years the work was carried on with not at all encouraging results. The first year lamp-chimney breeders were used. The mor- tality was great owing to the difficulty in the regulation of moisture and temperature. The second year a number of home-made wire cages were used and a large number of individuals placed in each. The extreme cannibalistic tendencies reduced the numbers to almost nothing, but
the work still gave a clue to what were the tendencies of
the adaptation of the animal to its environment. Later about a hundred fly-traps were procured and set up as
' described elsewhere in these pages.
The work will probably be carried on for another season, but enough data have been gathered that we can
28 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
contidently state in a preliminary way at least these conclusions:
1. ‘Lhe green nymphs are capable of changing to dark gray or brown when the environment is dark.
2. ‘The green insects will in all probability remain green when the environment is favorable to that color.
3. When once the gray color is acquired it is perma- nent despite any environmental conditions.
Poulton’? says that ‘‘all green colouration without exception is due to chlorophyll, while nearly all yellows are due to xanthophyll.’’ ‘Tower in his work on Colors and Color Patterns in Coleoptera goes more into detail on the coloration of Orthoptera. He says that in the Orthoptera the prevailing colors are blacks, browns, greens, yellows and rarely reds; the browns, blacks and some of the yellows are cuticular colors; the reds and most of the yellows are hypodermal. The Orthopteran forms are largely vegetable feeders and ‘‘the greens and yellows are centainly in part derived from plant pig- ments.’’ Thus the two color authorities reach the same conclusion, that the greens and yellows are derived from plant pigments. But here a mantis, an Orthopteran form which never in its life eats anything but animal food, attains precisely those colors. It is true that this insect, while entirely carnivorous, might acquire a cer- tain amount of chlorophyll by feeding upon insects which in turn are phytophagous (caterpillars, aphis, etc.) and thus develop the green color, but in that event why should this effect follow in only a part of the insects when all of them live upon practically the same food supply?
To assume that the coloration of the mantis is a vestige from the time when their ancestors were vege- table feeders is far from satisfying.
* Quoted by Vernon, Variation in Animals and Plants, p. 291.
:
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 29
Martine Hasits.
The very fact that the female mantis almost always devours her mate while the pair are in copulo, and the male unresistingly clings while he is slowly being eaten, makes the mating habits of this species arouse more than ordinary interest.
Pl. If is a very good photograph of a pair in the characteristic position of mating. The female here illustrated is green, while the male is an ordinary dark insect. The illustration nicely shows the _ general structural dimorphism of the sexes, as well as the com- parative size of the antennae.
That the males seek the females I have not a doubt, for in many cases they were found clinging to the out- side of the cages containing the latter. The insects, display so much individuality in their mating habits that it will be well to give the details of the behavior of a few typical individuals during this period.
Experiment 1. Aug. 14, 8:00 A. M., a male and a newly-matured female were placed in a large breeding- eage. A half-hour later the female was walking about - the ceiling of the cage, gracefully mounted by the male (but not in actual copulo), who tightly clutched her around the prothorax with his forelegs. The female was greedily devouring hairy caterpillars. The entire day was spent in slowly walking thus about the ceiling. Actual mating occurred at twilight, after a courtship of about ten hours, during all of which time the male seemed in quite the proper position. They separated some time between midnight and 6 the next morning, but at.10:30 the male had again mounted, and at 12 o’clock noon they resumed copulation and continued throughout the
- afternoon, severing some time between 7:30 and 10 that
evening. Again the next morning, Ang. 16, at 6, the male had mounted for the third time, but actual mating did
30 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
not take piace until the afterooon of the day following, and they severed early in the evening. Aug. 18 and 19 they were observed frequently, but no activities occurred during these two days; it was not until noon, Aug. 20, that the pair again mated.
Aug. 21, 7:00 A. M., the pair found separated; 2 P. M., male mounted on female; an additional male introduced.
Aug. 22, 7 A. M., all found separated; 7:30, one of the males had mounted. Aug. 23, 6 A. M., all separated. Aug. 24, one male mounted. Aug. 25, 6:30 A. M., female again in copulo with one of the males; 4 P. M., severed, but retaining position of mounting. Aug. 26, 6:30 A. M., this pair had resumed mating; 3 P. M., severed. Aug. 27,7 A. M., found first egg-case which had been deposited during the night.
Thus this female mated six different times and re- mained so about forty-five hours and deposited one egg- case during the first 14 days of its adult life.
The pair remained separated all day (Aug. 27) until 9:30 P. M., when they were again found in copulo, after a lapse of less than twenty-four hours since the deposi- tion of the egg-case. No observations could be made the next day, but on Aug. 29, 6 P. M., this female was again mounted by one of the males, which condition continued until the evening of Aug. 31. Thus for three days she carried him without actual mating. Why this conduct unless another egg-case was soon to be deposited? Was the male inefficient, and if so, why was he not devoured? Was the female still exhausted from egg-laying five days before? At this time this male was removed and an- other which appeared to be as yet unmated was placed in the cage. Only five hours later, this pair was found to be in actual copulo; this indicates that probably the other male was exhausted. During the following fore- noon, Sept. 1, they separated. On Sept. 2, 6 A. M., the lifeless remains of the male were found, with the abdomen entirely eaten away. Why did the female carry
oe. es -
ee ee eS, tee
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 31
the useless mate for three days without molesting him, and then turn around and attack one which might yet have been of some use?
The female was left alone until Sept. 4, when a new male was introduced. The next day he was found dead, with no signs of having been attacked by the female. On Sept. 6 still another was introduced, but no observations could be made until Sept. 10, when no male was found; evidently he also had been devoured.
The female was left alone and unobserved until Sept! 13, when the second egg-case was found to have been very recently deposited. The next day she was dead.
We learn from this experiment that the female mates many times with one or more males, that two egg-cases may be deposited, and that the duration of adult life was, in this case, 34 days.
Experiment 2. Aug. 14. The cage contained two adult females and one in the instar just preceding adult- hood. A male was found silently resting on the outside of the cage; he was grasped by the long prothorax and gently ushered inside. But his welcome was not a gra- cious one, for the next morning he, as well as the nymph, had been eaten. Another male was placed with the two remaining females on the afternoon of the 16th. Early the next morning he was found in mating with the gray female; they separated from about noon until 3 o’clock, when they resumed mating until some time in the night. The next day, Aug. 18, the male turned his attentions to the green female, mating with her in the afternoon. The following day all were going about singly until 5 P. M., when the gray female mated for the third time. This gray one mated again on the afternoon of Aug. 21, and the green one for the second time on Aug. 22. On the 24th the green female carried the male for some time but actual copulation did not take place until the 28th. At this time the gray was the successful rival, and she concluded this her fifth mating, with devouring her mate.
32 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
None other could, be found to succeed him. On the morn- ing of the 30th, two new egg-cases were found. It seems probable, though uncertain, that each female had de- posited one, for further observations proved that usually an interval, with copulation, occurs between the making of the first and second egg-case. :
On Sept. 1 another male was secured and placed with them. No observations could be made until the evening of the 3d, by which time he had been eaten. On the next morning the green female was also dead, but the death had been a natural one as no marks of violence could be found on the body. From this time forth'no males whatever could be secured, and the gray female alone remained. Ten days later a newly-made egg-case was discovered. This female was not observed in copulo between the first and second egg-laying, although this may have occurred during my absence from the experi- ments during the first of September. This new odtheca was placed flush with one of the first ones, slightly over- lapping it, as if intended for its continuation. Did the insect recognize its first effort and attempt to enlarge upon it, or was the choice of location purely accidental?
This insect was observed daily until its death Oct. 8, and fed occasionally, but it required less food from day to day as old age came on. After the chilly nights she would be found stretched upon the wires of the cage quite as if dead, but with the warm rays of sunshine she would soon revive.
Experiment 3. Aug. 13. A male and a gray female were caught in the garden and placed in a eage. Soon the female was observed to be carrying the male, and so they walked about during the entire day, the female for
diversion devouring many flies; not until sunset did
actual copulation take place. This mating continued for an unusually long time, until between midnight and morning of Aug. 15, or more than eighteen hours. They mated again on the 17th, from early morning until late
i
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 33
afternoon, and from the middle of the afternoon until night of the 18th, and after that appeared quite indif- ferent to each other until the afternoon of the 21st, when they again remated for a few hours. They went about singly for the next three days, after which the male mounted for a few hours in the evening, but did not ac- complish mating. By morning he had been dislodged, but in the afternoon he again persistently remounted. He was carried thus by the female all day, and it may be all night too. The next morning revealed an inter- esting double surprise; there was an unfinished egg-case made during the night, and the pair was again in copulo. Whether she made this odtheca with the male on her back, or whether he left her while she hurriedly con- structed it and then insistently returned, is not known. The nest certainly offered the appearance of hasty or interrupted work, for it measured only 10 mm. in length and was not finished with the usual nicety of a gradual slope from the top to the base, but it had the appearance of having terminated abruptly. The oncoming of ovi- position probably prevented copulation, for we know that the male was mounted and in readiness for the three days preceding, and that it occurred within a few min- utes or at least a few hours after the egg-case had left her body.
They continued in copulo throughout the day, but were separated all of the next. On the morning of the 28th, it was found that an additional odtheca 22 mm. in length had been joined to the first one, during the night. We shall not venture to call this more than mere chance or coincidence, and yet this was the second instance of a mother mantis placing her second nest in close juxta- position to the first, quite as though it were a continua- tion of it.
For the next two days each went about its own affairs, and on the morning of the 30th the male was gone, evi- dently having been devoured since escape was impos-
34 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
sible.. From this time on the female was alone. On the morning of Sept. 10 she was found dead, but during the night before she died she had built another egg-case, a beautiful piece of work 30 mm. long. Shall we say that this female deposited three odtheca? Hardly, since the first installment was abnormal and either interrupted or made under difficulties and the second part soon added to it, and both parts together compared well in size with the second.
Experiment 4. Aug. 15. The pair mated almost im- mediately after being placed together in the cage at 7 A.M. At noon however they separated, probably on ac- count of a heavy shower in which they were caught. During the next few days, ordinary uneventful matings occurred at the following times: from early morning until noon of Aug. 16, and from 9:10 P. M. of that same day until noon of the 18th; from early morning until noon of the 21st, and about the same hours on the 23rd. On the 24th, the male again mounted, but the female would not consent to actual mating, and the next morn- ing she was found pleasantly devouring him. A new mate was at once supplied; at 4 P. M. he also mounted her, but again copulation did not occur. The next morn- ing revealed that he likewise had been eaten and an egg- case had been made during the night. No new mate could be supplied until the evening of the 27th, and he very soon mounted. This time she carried him, without attack or resistance, for about eighteen hours before actual copulation occurred. In this respect the attitude of the female seemed very different after oviposition from just before. This copulation continued until some time in the forenoon of the 29th, when the male severed but did not dismount. He retained this position, with- out resuming mating, for almost three days, when at 4 P. M. on Aug. 31 he dismounted without any display on the part of either individual. This male was now re- moved and a new one introduced which mated with this
‘qe
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 35
willful female in less than two hours. This continued until the forenoon of the next day, Sept. 1, and at 6 that evening she ate him. A new one was thrust in with her immediately, and before 9:30 she had accepted him as a mate. By the next morning they had separated. Copulation was repeated that night, Sept. 2, and again all day on the 4th. After this each went its own way, until the morning of the 7th revealed an explanation for this conduct during the past three days in the form of a newly-made egg-case. After this, copulation was promptly resumed early the next morning, but by 8:30 A. M. the male, already headless, was being slowly and calmly devoured by his mate, while he clung, apparently automatically, without the least effort of resistance. At 2 P. M. the leisure meal was still in progress and by 4 o’clock the entire body, excepting a wing, had been eaten. No other mates could be gotten, so henceforth her life
was spent alone in the cage, until her natural death
Oct. 10. During her entire life after her capture, 56 days in all, she took very little food, excepting occasion-. ally a mate, and for the eight days preceding her death. she ate nothing whatever.
Experiment 5. Aug. 15. A male and two females, a gray and a green, were placed in a cage. Mating soon took place with the green one. At 6 the next morning they had severed, but they reunited at noon and con- tinued so until some time during the night. At 3:30 P. M. of the following day, Aug. 18, this male turned his attentions to the gray female. Mating continued
_ throughout the evening, but early the next morning only
her gray wings were to be found on the floor of the cage; evidently she had been devoured by her rival, for the adult males never attack members of either sex. The re- maining pair were indifferent to each other, so on Aug. 20 a new gray female was introduced. The next morning however the male was found to have returned to his old green mate, but at 2 P. M. they separated... No activities whatever took place until the 23d, when the green female
36 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
was found to be again in mating, but the male was head- less. The pair was chloroformed thus for a photograph (Pl. IIL), so further notes could not be made upon this experiment. |
Experiment 6. Aug. 18, 7 A. M. A pair in ecoitu were found in the garden and gently placed in a cage. At 10 o’clock they had severed, but resumed mating at 3:30. At this time a gray female was introduced, and by 7 P. M. the male had left the green female for her. The next morning the male had severed but not dis- mounted; she carried him all day until 5 P. M. when copulation was again resumed. The next day he was only being carried again; he persisted in this position until midday of Aug. 21, when he was devoured. By the following morning the green female had also been devoured by her voracious companion. A new male was at this time placed in the cage with the remaining gray female, but no mating occurred during this or the three days following, and on the 26th he likewise fell her vic- tim. But the next morning revealed an egg-case made during the night. The female was now left alone until a new mate could be gotten Sept. 1; copulation was be- gun promptly that evening and continued throughout all the next day. They separated for a few hours on the 3rd, but reunited that evening. On the 4th he was re- jected, and on the 5th he was eaten; none could be found to take his place. On Sept. 10 the second egg-case was found. The insect lived an uneventful existence hence- forth until its demise on Oct. 6.
Experiment 7. Aug. 18. The pair mated from noon ‘until 3:30, and from 5 P. M. of Aug. 19 until noon of the 20th, and still a third time on the 21st, from 3 o’clock until night. For the four whole days following the pair was closely observed, but mating did not oceur. On the morning of the 25th an egg-case was found, which evidently had been. finished only a few hours previously. At 4 P. M. the male was devoured by the female. A new
aR a er
St LSE SE OS
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 37
one was promptly introduced but no mating occurred; the next evening he was found dead, but the death ap- parently had been a natural one. Aug. 27, 7 A. M. an- other was introduced, but he too was immediately de- voured; his successor promptly met with the same fate at 4 P. M.—the third victim of this female’s voracity. No more males could be secured until Sept. 1, when at 4 P. M. one was introduced only to be devoured in less
- than two hours. Two more were promptly added; by
9:30 one of these had mounted the female, but actual copulation had not begun. This condition continued un- til midnight of the 2nd, but at 6 the next morning the male was found dead. Twenty-four hours later a large, newly-made egg-case, the second for this female, was found and already she was again carrying the male, but without mating. This performance continued all day of the 4th and 5th, but the next morning revealed that this male also had been devoured. No more mates could be supplied, so the female lived alone until her death Sept. 10.
In addition to the foregoing complete experiments, the following fragmentary observations will contribute to our knowledge of this subject.
A male going through its last moult and becoming adult on Aug. 22, mated in the evening of the following day at the age of about thirty hours.
On one occasion an old male and three females were taken at random and placed in a cage. None of the fe- males paid any attention whatever to him, so after six hours he was removed and an active young male which had voluntarily come to the cage was placed inside. In a short time one of the females mated with this one, while the other two assumed a furious attitude, erected their heads, curled their abdomens, raised their wings and occasionally leaped angrily at the pair. The couple was soon isolated to prevent any calamity. It is inter- esting that these three females all disregarded the first
38 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
male, and that immediately afterward all were extremely anxious, as their behavior clearly showed, to win favor of the second.
On Aug. 23, two males taken at random were placed with a gray female. They both fought for her pos- session; after half an hour one of them retired and the victor mated with her. Copulation continued until 5:30 the next morning. Within a half hour the pair had sev- ered, and already both males were clinging to the fe- male, one on each side, tightly clasping her prothorax with their spiny legs. Thus they persisted and con- tended until 4 P. M. when she fell from their grasp— dead—a victim of too ardent wooing.
On another similar occasion when a female was placed with five males, four of these were simultan- eously clinging to her at the same time, the whole affair forming one struggling mass of life. Throughout even this she succeeded in maintaining her position, clinging to a twig.
A copulating pair fell from the ceiling of the lab- oratory upon the back of my neck. I brushed them hastily to the floor, and this caused their separation. The female ran swiftly away, pursued by the male, but even with the advantage of two feet of distance she was overtaken, mounted and in copulo in less time than it takes to tell.
On three occasions when two males were placed in one cage, they mounted one another, and spent from 3 to 6 hours in the normal attitude of mating, although no attempt was made to actually copulate.
In the accompanying photograph (Pl. IV) we have an attempt to show many individuals displaying various characteristic activities of the animal, in one group. In the background one can indistinctly see a pair in copulo; a gray female in the characteristic attitude of fight, the wings raised in a quarter circle like those of an angry goose, rests on the top of the twig, and a green female
TAS ee
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 39
is just beneath. In the lower part of the picture, a male
can be seen about to mount the female. Note the greatly distended abdomen of the female which very soon will oviposit.
Pl. Ill shows two pairs which were chloroformed during mating while the male was being devoured from the head backward, as usual. This shows both the left and the right view of the connection.
The practice of the female devouring her mate may be one of the little economical devices of Nature. Since the male had already mated—done his duty, as it were— why continue a useless life? Why should he not go to help nourish the female while she goes through the function of egg-laying?
A female became adult on Aug. 16, was isolated and on Sept. 9 deposited an egg-case, but died three days later. Another which became adult on the same day and was likewise kept virgin, oviposited on Sept. 4 and died six days later. Both egg-cases appeared in all re- spects normal, but of course nothing emerged from them the next summer. This shows that females are capable of ovipositing and building the complex nest from their own bodies without the stimulus of fertilization, when about twenty days old.
It was thought that the males probably find the fe- males by means of scent or other sense organs located in the antennae, as we have found in the cecropia moth,'® but experiments on the removal of the antennae proved conclusively that this is not the case in the mantis.
Males with one or both antennae amputated, mounted and mated with the females just as quickly as did those with these organs intact.
It was also thought that the cerci of the female per- formed some function in mating, but the removal of these organs showed that they were of no value, for
* Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, 20: pp. 275-308.
40 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
matings occurred just as readily in the cerciless females as in the normal ones.
To briefly summarize, then, the points to be gleaned from these observations:
The males as well as the females are ready for mating very soon after becoming mature, 7. e., very soon after the last moult.
The species is highly polygamous and polyandrous and spend much time in mating. About six or eight hours is the usual duration of a single coitus, but it may be much less, or it may be extended to fifteen or eighteen hours.
As a rule, two egg-cases are deposited by each female, but mating is usually repeated in the few days’ interval between the two.
The female generally refuses to mate during about three days preceding oviposition, and is at this time es- pecially likely to rid herself of annoying suitors by eat- ing them.
The male seeks out the female and will contend for her possession, the female will also fight for the male but no coquettish display or other antics of courtship such as have been recorded for other animals and in- sects, have been observed in either sex of this species.
THe MAKING oF THE Eac-Casz.
The making of the egg-case in the mantis is truly a wonderful phenomenon,—all the more so when com- pared with the process in other members of the fam- ily.
The eggs of most of the Orthoptera are deposited in capsules which may contain one or a great number of eges. |
In the cockroaches (Blattidae; see Sharp, 1895, p. 229 et. seq.) the eggs are laid in a horny capsule formed within the mother’s body. This is carried about, pro- truding from the hinder part of the body, until it may be deposited in some suitable situation.
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 41
The eggs of the walking-stick (Phasmidae) are not systematically deposited but are discharged at random, remaining wherever they may chance to fall. The eggs resemble’ seeds and are dropped singly, each one en- veloped in a capsule which is provided with a lid which is pushed off by the emerging insect.
In the locusts (Acrididae) we see the mode of ovipo- sition differing widely from that of both the cockroach and the walking-stick. With her hard gonapophyses . she excavates a hole in the ground wherein she deposits her eggs, together with a quantity of fluid. This hard- ens and protects the eggs, and hence in function corre- sponds to some of the capsules made by other insects of this group. It may have been from this primitive way of protecting the eggs that the present complex way of egg-case-making in our mantis evolved. _
Some of the true locusts (Locustidae), katy-dids, etc., deposit their ova in twigs or stems of plants, arranging them in a very neat and compact manner, while others deposit their eggs in the earth.
The cricket (Gryllidae), which has a subterranean existence, deposits from two hundred to four hundred eggs. The mother watches over them very carefully
- until they hatch after three or four weeks; she then
supplies the young with food until their first moult, after which they disperse.
For a good many years it was quite unknown just how our species makes its egg-case. It was thought by some naturalists that the eggs were deposited and the whole mass then covered by a substance which hardened over them, the whole process resembling the oviposition of the grasshopper. Others thought that the whole mass was formed inside the body of the mother mantis and then expelled entire, similar to the method of the Blat- tidae.
Sharp (loc. cit., p. 246) says: ‘‘The eggs of Mantidae
are deposited in a very singular manner. The female
42 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Lows.
emits some foam like matter in which the eggs are con- tained. This substance dries and forms the odtheca; whilst attaining a sufficient consistency, it is maintained in position by the extremity of the body and the tips of the elytra, and it is shaped and fashioned by these parts.’’
One would take it from the above quotation that this account of egg-laying is for the entire family. If it be meant as Sharp states, an exception occurs in Stagmomantis carolina. Here the egg-case is fashioned only by the organs at the extremity of the body, and not in connection with the tips of the elytra; neither do the elytra or the tip of the body maintain the foamy sub- stance in position until it hardens. The egg-case is built of the foamy substance, which holds its shape just as it is being fashioned, and no more needs the tip of the body to support it until it hardens than a clay model needs to be held by the modeler until it becomes firm. The insect leaves the pile immediately after finishing the gradual slope downward. The structure maintains ~ its form alone, but sometimes the material is soft enough to be crushed between the fingers for perhaps six hours after its completion. In so far as the use of the elytra is concerned, either in fashioning or supporting the case during its construction, any of the illustrations in this paper will show that the wings cover less than two-thirds of the length of the body and cannot by any means touch the egg-case while it is being built.
A female and her egg-case just a few hours after oviposition are shown in Pl. IX. This picture is about exact size; the case was the largest ever met with in my experience with the mantis, while that shown in Pl. X is the smallest. Attention is called to the size and shape of the abodmen of this female just after oviposition (Pl. IX) in contrast with the usual distended condition prior to oviposition, as seen in the lower female on PI. IV. One wonders how so large a mass could have been packed in that body.
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 43
When the architecture of an egg-case is studied, with its rows of cells, galleries and openings all arranged with precision, one realizes the complexity of the task of building such a structure and wonders where the insect could have acquired this knowledge, since of course it had no mother or experienced contemporaries to mimic in nest building, as have the higher animals or even the social insects.
The work of nest making consumes about two hours, and almost always is commenced at sunset, or after dark. Why this strange time of day should almost invariably be chosen has not been ascertained.
When about to begin ovipositing the mantis takes its position on the twig or surface, head downward, holding _ on by the two hind pair of legs; the front pair are held free as usual. The insect remains perfectly quiet, ex- cepting for the contractions and expansions of thelasttwo or three abdominal segments. Soon a small stream or ribbon of whitish substance issues from the body; this in appearance greatly resembles tooth-paste as it is pressed from the tube. A little later, when it is worked up and ready for the making of the egg-case it is foamy and mucilagenous, like the beaten white of egg, and has a delicate greenish tint. When the ribbon protrudes for about a quarter of an inch, it is pressed against the twig or surface by the tip of the abdomen, and adheres thereto. Let it here be stated that throughout the work the insect rests with the head downward and has never been séen to turn to observe the work while in progress. Furthermore, none of the appendages assist in the egg- ease making, but the mass of material is pumped from the body by the movements of the last two or three ab- dominal segments only, and the whole is shaped by the Ovipositor, the two small cerci probably aiding in the construction by acting as sense organs.
The last two segments, by a series of contortions, con- tractions and expansions, press out the ribbon of ma-
44 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
terial, which soon is converted into the frothy sub- stance. After it has reached the proper consistency under the manipulation of the ovipositor, it passes on into the pile ready to be fashioned into the beginning of the egg-case. During this process the ovipositor is much distended and attains great size; the opening also is very large under this condition.
The egg-case is begun at the broad, rounded end, and the construction progresses from side to side; each row of cells across the case is completed and the partition re- enforced before the next tier is begun. The ovipositor slowly works into the soft substance until quite a hol- low space is formed; this forms one row of four cells on one side; then it passes on to make the corresponding suite on the other side. The dividing line between the right and left sides of the egg-case is indicated by the braided appearance on top. Evidently the eggs'® are deposited during this hollowing-out process, and are em- bedded in the soft substance. They undoubtedly leave the body with this material, but never in all of my mantis experience could they be seen even with the closest scrutiny. While burrowing into the substance at the sides the ovipositor goes in more deeply, evidently to shape the lateral galleries. After a suite on each side has been completed some of the substance from the periphery is stretched over it to form a re-enforced par- tition between this and the next row of cells; this is perfected and smoothed by left and right strokes of the ovipositor. The insect then repeats the process, hol- lowing out and partition making until the whole is com- pleted. One tier of cells is always complete, even to the little ribbon-like flap on top which is the door, before the hollowing out of the next tier commences. If the egg- case be large, the mother mantis will sometimes move a short distance downward as the structure grows. How the openings are made at the top during the construction
% The eggs are from 2 to 24% mm. in length. -
a A a” wl A
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 45
could never be discerned, but the cerci constantly pass over the last addition much in the manner that the anten- nae of some insects are used. Whether these organs assist in making the openings, or whether they act only as sense organs and keep the whole affair symmetrical could not be ascertained. In one female the cerci were removed with fine scissors during the egg-case building. The structure was completed in a very irregular man- ner. This fact may, however, have been the result of the shock of cutting, since the same individual without the cerci a few days later made another egg-case of
_ perfectly normal appearance. The eggs are not de-
posited in a haphazard manner, but all of them stand on end, one in each cell. They must of course be em- bedded in this manner, and perhaps the cerci come into use in some way in accomplishing this. The last abdom- inal segment carrying the cerci is constantly in one position throughout the work, apparently always keep- ing hold upon the last addition of the ‘‘braided’’ top. From the opening just beneath the last dorsal segment the material for the nest issues, while the work of mold- ing the cells and shaping the mass is done by the characteristic ovipositor. This organ goes over and
smoothes each partition two or three times, while the
dorsal tip never looses its hold of the last braided ad- dition.
An interesting fact is that immediately after ovipos- iting the insect walks away for a short distance and goes through the contortion of forming a circle of her body, and with her head partly inserted into the rear opening eats away all that remains of the nest material, and in so far as I have been able to see, quite relishes it. It may be that it is necessary to remove any of this substance before it hardens and would be a great hind- rance to future copulation or oviposition, but this can- not be the sole reason, for I have seen insects of both sexes behave in the same manner on other occasions, and the females usually just after mating.
46 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
The insect after leaving the egg-case usually pays no more attention to it.
In order to ascertain the nature and condition of this substance which goes into the egg-case while still in the body of the female, a number of insects about to oviposit were preserved in chloral hydrate and dissected—that is, the chitin covering the entire abdomen was carefully stripped off. The illustrations (Pl. XIV, Figs. 1 and 2) show the dorsal and ventral surface of the rows of whit- ish ribbon, which are connected with the eggs that lie just beneath; it is this ribbon-like material worked into froth, that go into the construction of the egg-case.
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 47
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
We here subtend a complete list of references to the literature on Stagmomantis carolina, with brief abstracts. The only excuse for its publication, is its completeness.
*1763. Linnaeus, C. von..Centuria insectorum rariorum. p. 13-14. Upsaliae. ; Gryllus carolinus; G. irrorata.
-1763.. Linnaeus, C. von..Amoenitate Academicae. VI. p. 396. Hol- miae. Gryllus carolinus. Habitat Carolina.
*1767. Linnaeus, C. von..Systema Naturae. 12th ed. Orthoptera. II. p. 690-691. Holmiae. Mantis irrorata (= S. carolina, fide Thomas 1876); Mantis carolina.
1774. Miieller. P. L. S...Linnaeus Natur System. V. p. 414. Mantis carolina. Brief description.
e *1778. Goeze, J. A. E....Entomologische Beitrage zu des Ritter Linné zwolften Ausgabe des Natur-systems. Il. p. 26. Leipzig. Fide Scudder’s Index.
MEPOto BtOl, Cai esc cis eek Representation exactement colorée d’aprés
aye nature des spectres ou phasmes, des
mantes, des sauterelles, des grillons, des
ae criquets, et des blattes. I. Spectres et
BY ) mantes. p. 70. pl. 24. f. 91-92. Amster-
dam. Habitat Georgia and Florida. Fide Scudder. 1788. Gmelin, J. F...... Linné Systema Naturae. I. Pt. 4. p. 2058. Habitat Carolina. *1792. Oliver, A. G.......Encyclopédie Méthodique, VII. p. 632. Fide
Scudder’s Index.
Piave., Lurton,, W......3 A general system of nature. By C. Linné. II. p. 540. London. G. Irrorata. Description. Habitat Carolina.
*1838. Burmeister,H.C.C. Handbuch der Entomologie. II. p. 538. Mantis carolina. Fide Scudder.
*1839. Serville, J. G. A...Histoire naturelle des insectes. Orthoptéres.
p. 189-191. / G. cutualoris, conspurcata, inquinata. Fide Scudder. *1842. Haan, W. de...... Bijdragen tot de kennis der Orthoptera. In Temminck’s Verhandelingen. p. 60. Lei- den.
Habitat Tennessee. Fide Scudder.
*1843. Zimmerman, C....Zur Naturgeschichte der Mantis carolina. Wiegmann’s Archiv. IX. p. 390-392. Fide Scudder.
*Those marked * not seen by the author.
48
*1847,
Trans, Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Fitch, A...
List of noxious insects. American Quarterly Journal of Agricultural Science. VI. p. 146.
As Gryllus, fide Lintner, 1888. ~
*1859-60. Saussure, H. de.Orthoptera nova americana. I. Rev. Mag.
*1861.
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1865
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Saussure, H. de...
Rathvon, $
Thomas, C.
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Me. Sa
eee ee ee
Walsh, B. D. and
Saussure, H. de...
seer eeee
Zool. p. 859-860. Paris. Mantis feroz. Fide Scudder.
Orthoptera nova americana. II. Rev. Mag. Zool. p. 127. Paris.
Mantis tolteca = S. carolina. Fide Thomas 1876. Scudder 1901.
Entomology and its relation to the vegetable productions of the soil. Report U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1862. p. 376. f. 8-10.
Eggs brought from Maryland and raised for two or three consecutive seasons at Lan- caster City, Pa.
Insects injurious to vegetation in Illinois. Transactions Illinois State Agricultural Society. V. p. 441.
Brief account of structure and color. Bibli- ography.
Report of the entomologist. Report of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1866. p. 40.
Introduced and raised as far north as Hud- son river for one season.
The stick-bug. American Entomologist. I. p. 58-59.
Found in southern [Illinois and Missouri. Notes on habits.
Guide to the study of insects. Ed. 1883. p. 575. f. 567.
Habitat south and west. Anatomy of the genus.
Essai d’un systéme des mantides. Mitteil-
ungen der Schweizerischen Entomolog- .
ischen Gesellschaft. III. p. 65. Stagmomantis tolteca = S. carolina. Fide
Thomas 1876. S. stollii. Fide Scud-
der. Description. Fide Blatchley 1903.
Annual report of the noxious, beneficial and other insects of the state of Missouri. I. p. 169-171. f. 94-95.
Good general account.
Range of the rear-horse. American Ento- mologist. II. 63-64. Range north to Lat. 40°. Taken at St. Louis.
Insects injurious to the grape-vine. Ameri- can Entomologist. II. p. 272.
Spilosoma virginica Fab. feeds on dead bodies of Mantis carolina.
*Those marked * not seen by the author.
*1871.
1871.
#1872.
*1872.
*1873.
*1874.
*1874.
1875.
1876.
1876.
1876.
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 49
Saussure, H. de... Synopsis des mantides américains. Mémoires de Histoire Naturelle de Mexique. Série II. Tom. I. p. 46-48. Stagmomantis carolina. Fide Thomas 1876. Eastern North America below 40° N. Lat. Illinois, Tennessee, Carolina, Mex- ico. Fide Scudder Index. Stagmoman- tis dimidiata = S. carolina. Fide Seudder 1896.
BUGF CN Vici Annual report of the noxious, beneficial and other insects of the state of Missouri. III. p. 68. Spilosoma virginica Fab. feeds on dead bodies of Mantis carolina.
Glover, Te.) '0 Tllustrations of North American Entomology. Orthoptera. pl. 2. f. 1-16. Fide Blatch- ley 1903.
Saussure, H. de...Etudes sur les insectes orthoptéres. Mis- sion scientifique au Mexique et dans V’Amérique centrale. Recherches zool- ogiques. VI partie, I section, II livr. p. 247-248. pl. 5-6. Paris. Fide Scud- der’s Index and Blatchley 1903.
Glover, T. ABSA bi Report of the entomologist. Report of U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1873. p. 133. f. 5. Fide Scudder’s Index.
Grover: Tac eo a Report of the entomologist. 1874. p. 40.
Middle States. Fide Scudder’s Index. Glover: Te Report of the entomologist. Annual Report
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1874. p. 133-134. Description and habits.
MmHOMAS, (Cie: Report upon the collection of Orthoptera made in portions of Nevada, Utah, Cali- fornia, Colorado, New Mexico, and Ari- zona, during the years 1871, 1872, 1873, and 1874. Report of the U. S. Geological Survey West 100th Meridian. V. p. 849.
wore wheeleriti = S. carolina. Fide Scud- er.
mogze,. Co Ro oe. Entomological gleanings in southern Florida. Field and Forest. I. p. 74. Washington, D. C. Hatched indoors in Jan- uary.
Stal, C. ..........Systema Mantodeorum. Bihang till Kong. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akademiens Hand- lingar. IV. No. 10. p. 61.
Description. PROMAS) (Cheesy A list of the Orthoptera of Illinois. Bulletin Pay hig Museum of Natural History. I. p. 60.
Habitat southern part of state.
*Those marked * not seen by the author.
1877.
1878.
1878.
1880.
1883.
1883.
*1884.
1884.
1885.
1885.
1885.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
RTE IVS view cis iee
Riley, C.iVis ve. cawe Rite yy CW os ais
Scudder, S. H.....
Riley ei Visaws's os
Borre, A. P. de...
Packard, A. S&., Riley, C. V. and ENOMMBGs TIS ido cral ps
Riley, ©. View ones
Maley OC) Wess vas.
Hubbard, H. G....
Bruner, Gace
Riley, C. V.. setees
The locust plague in the United States. p. 128. Feeds on locust, Coloptenus spretus:
Annual report of the noxious, beneficial and other insects of the state of Missouri. IX. p. 98.
Feeds on Coloptenus spretus.
Report of the U. S. Entomological Commis- sion. I. p. 334. : Observed to prey upon Rocky Mountain Lo-
cust.
Orthoptera of Florida. Psyche. II. p. 154. Habitat Florida.
Report of U. S. Entomological Commission. TES O.37- teres Probably feeds on cotton worms.
Liste des mantides du Musée royal d’his- toire naturelle de Belgique. Annales de Société Entomologique de Belgique. XXVII. p. 64.
S. carolina var. minor; Gordon Co., Georgia. S. dimidiata Central America, Mexico, United States. Two nymphs from Per- nambuco,' Brazil. Quotes Saussure (Miss. Sci. Mex. Orthoptera p. 249) as inclined to believe that carolina, minor and dimidiata are reducable to one spe- cies.
Report of U. S. Entomological Commission. III. p. 310-3138. pl. 33. f. 1-5. Anatomy.
The standard natural history, ed. by John S. Kingsley. II. p. 174. f. 249-250.
Phasmomantis carolina. Fide Blatchley 1903: and Scudder’s Index.
Report of the entomologist. p. 415. Destroys caterpillars and other insects.
Insects affecting the orange. Washington. -
Habitat Florida. Brief general account.
First contribution to a knowledge of the Orthoptera of Kansas. Bulletin Wash- burn College Laboratory. I. p. 125.
Phasmomantis. Habitat Labette Co., Bar- ber Co., Topeka, Kansas.
Report U. S. Entomological Commission. IV. p. 99-100. f. 25 a, b. Brief account. Destroys Aletia agrillacea.
*Those marked * not seen by the author.
1886.
1886.
1886.
1887.
1887.
1888.
1888.
1888.
*1889.
—*1890. 1890. 1891. 1892.
*1892.
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 51
Howard, L. O.....
Ashmead, W. H...
MUCY. Co) Vind sister's
Lintner, J. A......
Beery Co Vass see
Comstock, J. H....
Lintner, 3. MBS NG eg
Riley, Co Ves sce
Westwood, J. O...
Ppt.) Ps Be Sy Packard, A. S..... IRON GIR, Se oe sc baie Howard, L. O.....
Howard, L. O.....
The excessive voracity of the female Man- tis. Science. VIII. p. 326.
Female devours male while in copulo.
Description of a new chalcid, parasitic on Mantis carolina Say. Canadian Ento- mologist. XVIII. p. 57.
Report of the entomologist. Annual report U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1886. p. 526.
Eats caterpillars of fall web worm.
Country Gentleman. LII. p. 9. Taken at Washington, D. C.
Our shade trees and their insect defoliators. Bulletin Division of Entomology U. S. Department of Agriculture. X. p. 44. f. 20 a, b.
Fond of caterpillars of fall web worm.
An introduction to entomology. p. 94-95. Short general account of structure and hab- its.
Annual report on the injurious and other insects of the state of New York. IV. p. 158-162. f. 65-66.
Distribution, food, egg-case, etc.
The rear horse domesticated. Insect Life. I. p. 156. Thought to feed on roaches.
Revisio insectorum familiae -fMantidarum speciebus novis aut minus cognitis de- scriptis et delineatis. London.
Habitat Illinois, Carolina and Mexico. Fide Scudder’s Index.
Catalogue of insects found in New Jersey. p. 407. Fide Scudder’s Index.
On insects injurious to forest and shade trees. Report U. S. Entomological Com- mission. VII. p. 251-252, f. 89 a, b.
Eats caterpillars of fall web worms.
A list of the Orthoptera of Illinois. Psyche. VI. p. 78. Occurs in southern Tilinois.
A genus of Mantis egg-parasites. Insect Life. IV. p. 243. f. 29, 31. Parasites of the eggs of S. carolina.
A genus of Mantis ege-parasites, Proceed- ings Entomological Society of Wash-
ington. Il. p. 251-252. Fide Scudder’s Index.
*Those marked * not seen by the author.
52
1892.
1892.
1893. 1893.
1894.
1894.
1894.
*1894.
1895.
1895.
1896.
1896.
1897.
1897.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Howard, L. O.....
Riley; eV. Vase eo
Garman, H.......
Bruner, Ts. vs eyes
Ashmead, W. H...
Harsbarger, W. A.
Saussure, H. de..
Scudder, S. H.....
Blatchley, W. S...
Scudder, S. H.....
Scudder, S. H.....
A genus of Mantis ege-parasites. Entomo- logical News. III. p. 47. Active female seen Nov. 16th.
The female rear-horse versus the male. In- sect Life. V. p. 145. Mating habits.
The Orthoptera of Kentucky. Annual re- port Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station. VI. p. 10.
Abundant in western Kentucky.
A list of Nebraska Orthoptera. Publications of Nebraska Academy of Science. III. p: 24:
Occurs in eastern third of state.
Notes on cotton insects found in Missis- sippi. Insect Life. VII. p. 25. Habitat Hinds Co., Miss.
Entomological News. V. p. 169. 8S. carolina ate of robber fly (Asilus).
Engendomliga vanor hos Mantidernas honor. Entomologisk Tidskrift. XV. p. 118. Stockholm.
Translation of article in Insect Life. V. p. 145. )
Orthoptera genuina. Gryllidae. Biologia Central America, Zoologia, Orthoptera. I. p. 140-1438.
Table of species of Stagmomantis. 8. tolteca = 8. carolina. Habitat Louisiana, Car- olina, Tennessee, Texas, Mexico. Fide Scudder’s Index. i
Cambridge Natural History. V. p. 242-259. f. 135-147.
Excellent account of Mantidae. No men- tion of S. carolina. .
A manual for the study of insects. p. 107. f. 116-117. Brief general account.
Index: to the Mantidae of North America north of Mexico. Canadian Entomol- ogist. XXVIII. p. 210-215.
Miscellaneous notes. Canadian Entomol- ogist. XXVIII. p. 265-266.
Habitat southern Indiana. Female devoured male in copulo.
Notes on eggs of Stagmomatis carolina. Psyche. VIII. p. 11. Notes on egg-case, eggs and embryo.
Guide to the genera and classification of the North American Orthoptera found north of Mexico. Cambridge. p. 17.
*Those marked * not seen by the author,
> nee
Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 53
1897. Morgan, H. A.....Report of entomologist. Bulletin Louisiana * Experiment Station, Series II, No. 48. Podagrion mantis bred from egg-cases of
Phasmomantis carolina.
1898. Lugger, ya eRe The Orthoptera of Minnesota. Third An- nual Report of the Entomologist of the State Experiment Station of the Uni- versity of Minnesota. p. 97. General account. Not found in Minnesota. |
1898. Cockerell, T. D. A.The development of Mantis. American Nat- uralist. XXXII. p. 513. Probably 8S. carolina.
1898. Cockerell, T. D. A.Development of Mantis. Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society. 1898. p. 626. Abstract of paper in American Naturalist.
1899. Slingerland, M. V.Occurrence of Stagmomantis carolina in New York. Entomological News. X. p. 288-289.
*1899. Blatchley, W. S...Gleanings from nature. p. 209. Katydids and their kin.
wage. saamrent. Poss.) s A species of Orthoptera. Entomological News. X. p. 79. Specimen taken in Philadelphia.
1900. Howard, L. O.....Nocturnal flight of grasshoppers. Bulletin Division of Entomology U. S. Depart- I ment of Agriculture... N. S. XXII. p. 108. Reported from Greenville, Miss., feeding on honey bees.
1900. Henshaw, S....... New England Orthoptera. Psyche. IX. p. 119
Habitat Rhode Island.
1900. Scudder, S. H.....Catalogue of the described Orthoptera of the United States and Canada. Pro- ceedings Davenport Academy of Natural Sciences. VIII. p. 12.
Bibliography.
1900. Slingerland, M. V.The common European praying Mantis a new beneficial insect in America. Bulle- tin Cornell University Agricultural Ex- periment Station. 185. p. 37, 40 and 43.
8S. carolina mentioned.
epee; smith; J; B......: Insects of New Jersey. p. 151. f. 66. Fide Scudder’s Index.
1901". Scudder, S. H.....Alphabetical index to North American ; Orthoptera described in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Occasional Papers Boston Society of Natural His- tory. VI. Complete bibliography.
*Those marked * not seen ro the author. ™ Many of the references from 1900 to 1911 were kindly supplied by Mr. A. N. Caudell.
54
1901.
1901.
*1901.
1902.
1902.
1902.
1903.
1903.
1904.
1904.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
Rehn, J. A. G.....Random notes on North American Orthop- tera. Transactions American Entomo- logical Society. XXVII. p. 331. . Two males taken. Apparently first recorded from Pennsylvania. :
Howard, L. O.....The Insect Book. p. 326. pl. 35, f. 215-216. Popular account.
SCISSS Oeste keke Notes on Stagmomantis carolina. Entomo- logical Student. II. p. 12-13. Habits of S. carolina.
Caudell, A. N......A greedy insect. Entomological News. XIII. p. 60.
Mantid, probably S. carolina, fed on house flies.
Caudell, A. N..... Notes on Orthoptera from Oklahoma and In- dian Territory, with description of three new species. Transactions American Entomological Society. XXVIII. p. 83.
Two males and one female taken in Payne Co., Okla., Oct. 7, 1901.
Scudder, S. H. and A first list of the Orthoptera of New Mexico.
Cockerell, T. D. A. Proceedings Davenport Academy of Nat- ural Sciences. IX. p. 20.
Taken at Las Crucas, New Mexico. Hgg-
cases parasitized by Podagrion mantis.
Rehn, J. A. G....5, Notes and remarks on North American Blat- tidae, Mantidae and Phasmidae. With a catalogue of the Forficulidae, Blattidae, Mantidae and Phasmidae recorded from Texas. Entomological News. XIV. p. 328-330.
Habitat Washington Co., Texas, Burnett and Sierra Co., New Mexico, and Fort Yuma, California.
Blatchley, W. S...The Orthoptera of Indiana. Annual report ; Indiana Department of Geology and Nat-
ural Resources. XXVII. p. 200. f. 32. Description and life history. Bibliography.
Rehn, J. A.G. and The Orthoptera of Thomas County, Georgia,
Hebard, Moco... and Leon County, Florida. Proceedings Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- delphia. LVI. p. 781.
Immature insects found in Georgia and Flor- ida in July and August; adult in Sep- tember and October. Favorite habitat Blackberry bush.
Rehn, J. A. G.....Notes and descriptions of Orthoptera from the western United States. Transactions Kansas Academy of Science. XIX. p. 221. Found at Lawrence, Kansas.
*Those marked * not seen by the author.
4 Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 55 "1904. Gillette, C. P...... Report of the entomologist. Bulletin Colo- rado Agricultural Experiment Station.
XCIV. p. 22.
Taken at Nepesta and Grand Junction.
1904. Tucker, E.S...... Insects. Kansas Farmer. 1904. p. 527. ; Brief popular’ account. Taken at Riley, Wichita and Lawrence, Kansas.
1904. Rehn, J. A. G.....Studies in American Mantids or soothsayers. : Proceedings U. S. National Museum. XXVIII. p. 563. Four males, S. tolteca, at Panama and Costa Rica. One female, 8S. dimidiata, Costa Rica.
1904. Rehn, J. A. G.....Notes on the Orthoptera from Arizona, New Mexico and Colorado. Proceedings Academy of Natural Sciences Philadel- phia. LVI. p. 562. Two males taken at Florence, Arizona, July 13, 1903. :
1904. Kirby, W. F....... A synonymic catalog of Orthoptera. I. p. 252.
a ae a
— ~_— PSs
= Fs
ee
*1904. Kirby, W. F....... Notes on Mantidae in the Collection of the British Museum (Natural History) An- nals and Magazine of Natural History. Series VII. Vol. XIII.
Sete fe As
feen, \Braun, ALF... ... Entomological News. XV. p. 253. Phasmomantis carolina abundant near Cincinnati, Ohio.
1905. Kellogg, V. L...... American Insects. p. 130. Mentions S. carolina.
1905. Quaintance, A. L. The cotton bollworm. Bulletin Bureau of and Brues, C. T... Entomology Department of Agriculture. Ly ph 212: Enemies of the cotton bollworm.
1905. Rehn, J.A.G.and A contribution to the knowledge of the Orth- Hebard, M. ...... optera of south and central Florida. Pro- ceedings Academy of Natural Sciences r of Philadelphia. LVII. p. 33. op Immature female taken at Key West, Jan. 20, 1904. Males at light at Miami, Fla., Feb. 4. 1903.
1905. Rehn, J. A. G.....Notes on the Orthoptera of Costa Rica. Pro- ceedings Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. LVII. p. 794. S. tolteca male. Feb. 1905.
———
71905.’ Isely, F. B........ Notes on Kansas Orthoptera. Transactions
| Prrgsiay Academy of Science. XIX. p.
Eggs hatched in laboratory in April. Adults common from August to October.
*Those marked * not seen by the author.
56
1905.
*1905.
1905.
1906.
1906.
1906.
*1907.
1907.
1907.
1907.
1907.
1907.
Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Lows.
Baker? Cui se se
Caudell, A. N.....
Rehn, J. A. G.....
Caudell, A. N.....
Girault, A. A......
Girault, A. A......
Girault, A. A......
Repn, J.cA. GY
Morley, M. W.. oid
Invertebrata Pacifica. I. p. 72. Taken at Claremont, California, and S. tolteca at Nicaragua.
Proceedings Entomological Society of Wash- ington. VII. p. 86.
Insects affecting park and woodland trees. Memoirs New York Museum of Natural History. VIII. p. 24, 146, 154.
Attacks caterpillars of fall web worm, Hy- phantria textor. Enemy to elm leaf beetle, Galerucella luteotla.
Entomological News. XVII. p. 229. Taken at San Bernardino Ranch, Arizona.
Descriptive synopsis of insect collections. II. Orthoptera. p. 73. Habitat southern Illinois. Brief account.
Notes on a winter trip in Texas, with an an- notated list of the Orthoptera. Ento- mological News. XVII. p. 156.
No Mantidae were observed in any stage from December 22nd to January 4th at Brazos County, Galveston or Houston.
Notes on United States Orthoptera, with the descriptions of one new species. Pro- ceedings Entomological Society of Wash- ington. VIII. p. 134.
Hosts of insect egg-parasites in North and South America. Psyche. XIV. p. 37. S. carolina host of Podagrion mantis.
Brief notes on the habits of Podagrion man- tis Ashmead. Entomological News. XVIII. p. 107.
Ten egg cases of 8. carolina brought forth 578 S. carolina, 240 Podagrion and 12 hyper-parasites, making a total fatality in 8. carolina of 252 in 880.
Standards of the number of eggs laid by in- oer Entomological News. XVIII. p. 9, Number of eggs deposited.
Records of Orthoptera from the vicinity of Brownsville, Texas. Entomological News. XVIII. p. 210.
One male at Brownsville, Texas, June, 1907.
-Grasshopper Land. p. 12, 35-37, 40, 87-88,
108-123. Popular juvenile account.
*Those marked * not seen by the author.
1907.
1907.
1908.
1908.
1909.
1910.
*1910.
1910.
1911.
- Rau—The Biology of Stagmomantis Carolina. 57
Rehn, J. A.G. and Orthoptera of northern Florida. Proceed- Hebard, M. ...... ings Academy of Natural Sciences Phil- adelphia. LIX. p. 282. Nymphs from Pablo Beach and Gainesville in August, and adult female from Cedar Keys, Florida, August 15th.
Tucker, E. S...... Some results of desultory collecting of in- sects in Kansas and Colorado. Kansas
University Science Bulletin. IV. p. 72. Occurs in Kansas in September and October.
Howard, L.O.and The bag worm. Circular Bureau of Entomol- Chittenden, F. H.. ogy U. S. Department of Agriculture. XCVII. p. 2. foot-note. S. carolina gradually extending its north- ward range.
Brimley, C. S..... Notes on the Orthoptera of Raleigh, North Carolina. Entomological News. XIX. p.
16. Found from August to October at Raleigh, N.C. Tucker, E. 5 VCD Incidental captures of apterous and orth-
opterous insects at Plano, Texas. Ento- mological News. XX. p. 296.
Taken in August and September at Plano, Texas.
Banks, N. ........A list of works on North American entomol- ogy. Bulletin Bureau of Entomology U. S. Department of Agriculture. LXXXI.
p. 93.
BEd) Fp aiie's: 5) cles Report on the insects of New Jersey. Re- port New Jersey State Museum. p. 175. f. 74.
Rehn, J. A.G. and. Preliminary studies of North Carolina Orth-
Hebard, M. ...... optera. Proceedings Academy of Nat- ural Sciences of Philadelphia. LXII. p. 621.
Virginia and South Carolina.
Sherman, F. and Entomological News. XXII. p. 387. Brimley, C.S...... Taken at Raleigh, Greensboro and Southern Pines, North Carolina.
*Those marked * not seen by the author.
58 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
EXPLANATION OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Plate L—A green female, showing the insect in act of moving head about. (Photograph from life.)
Plate IL—A male and female in copulo; showing the sexual diporph- ism of the species. (Photograph from life. Natural size.)
Plate IlI.—The male being devoured by the female while mating. (Natural size.)
Plate IV.—A group of adults. (Photograph from life.)
Plates V, VI, VIlI.—Females and their natural environments, (Pho- - tograph from life. Natural size.)
Plate VII.—A dark gray and a green female in the attitude of fight. - (Photograph from life.)
Plate IX.—A gray female and her egg-case. (Photograph from life.)
Plate X.—An abnormally small egg-case and its maker. (Photograph from life. Natural size.)
Plates XI, XII, XIII—-Nymphs in the fifth instar, showing the ad- vantage of resemblance to environment. (Photograph from life. Slightly enlarged.)
Plate XIV.—A female with the integument removed, showing the ribbon-like substance, the material for egg-case making as it appears after hardening in chloral hydrate—Fig. 1. Dorsal view.—Fig. 2. Ventral view. (Much enlarged.)
Plate XV.—Egg cases. (Slightly reduced.)
Plate XVI.—The structure of the egg-case.—Fig. 1. Horizontal section near botton (Floor).—Fig. 2. Horizontal section near top (Ceiling).— Figs. 3 and 4. Horizontal sections through the center.—Figs. 5 and 6. Longitudinal sections.—Figs. 7 and 8. Cross sections. (All enlarged.)
Plate XVII._Nymphs just after emerging. (Greatly enlarged.)
Plate XVIII.—Fig. 1. Head, prothorax and forelegs of an adult fe- male.—Fig. 2. A nymph going through its first moult. (Enlarged and % natural size.)
Issued March 25, 1913.
TrANS. AcaD. Sci. oF St. Louis, VoL. XXII.
PLATE I.
STAGMOMANTIS
CAROLINA.
TRANS. AcaD. Scr. oF ST. Louis, Vou. XXII. PLATE II.
STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.
PLATE III.
XXII.
St. Louis, VOL.
Scr. OF
TRANS. ACAD.
STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.
TRANS. ACAD. Sci. oF St. Louis, VoL. XXII. PLATE IV.
STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.
TRANS. ACAD. Scr. oF St. LovuIs, Vou. XXII. PLATE V.
STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.
Trans. ACAD. Sci. oF St. Louis, Vou. XXII. PLATE VI.
STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.
TRANS. ACAD. Sci. oF St. Louis, Vou. XXII. PLATE VII.
STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.
TRANS. AcAD. Scr. oF St. Louris, VoL. XXII.
PLATE VIII.
STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.
:
Trans. AcaD. Scr. of St. Louis, Vout. XXII.
PLATE IX.
STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.
TRANS. AcAD. Scr. oF St. Louis, Von. XXII. PLATE X.
STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.
TRANS. AcaD. Scr. oF St. LOUIS, VoL. XXII. PLATE XI.
STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.
Trans. AcapD. Sct. oF St. Louis, Vou. XXII. PLATE XII.
STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.
TRANS. ACAD. Sci. oF St. Louis, Vou. XXII. PLATE XIII.
STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.
TRANS. ACAD. Sci. oF St. Louis, VoL. XXII. PLATE XIV.
\
STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.
TRANS. ACAD. Scr. oF St. Louis, Vou. XXII. PLATE XV.
phe ® t HMM. BAB y eA ee
STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.
TRANS. ACAD. SCI.
oF St. Louis, Vou. XXII.
PLATE XVI.
STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.
TRANS. AcapD. Sci. oF St. Louis, VoL. XXII. PLATE XVII.
STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.
TRANS. ACAD. Scr. oF St. Louis, Vou. XXII. PLaAtTe XVITT
STAGMOMANTIS CAROLINA.
so tie
- fF ST pat OR fem =
-. iS
SCE,
ee lie
a he ae = = ae
ig ee aie eee
oo lee ga
me 7 re
LOCAL MAGNETIC STORMS.*
Franois KE. NieHer.
The work of the Ampére nearly a century ago, taken in connection with the fact that fragments of a steel magnet are also magnets, was sufficient grounds for the theory that the molecules of magnetic matter may con- tain closed electric currents. The discovery of the elec- tron gave additional weight to the older suggestion. With a view of obtaining direct evidence of this condi- tion within a steel magnet, the writer began a series of experiments which have led to interesting results, but which leave the original question unanswered.
It appeared possible that the magnetic force of a steel
- magnet might be varied by draining negative electrons
from it. This was done by connecting it with the positive terminal of an influence machine.
The magnet to be tested was 30 em. in length and about 2.5 em. in diameter. It was composed of a thin film of steel 0.2 mm. in thickness. ' It was formed of a single layer of steel wire wound longitudinally on a piece of rubber hose, rendered rigid by means of a core of wood. The winding was in the form given the copper windings of a drum armature. The wire was held in place by silk cord, and the steel wire crossing the ends of the hose was removed. The wire was then magnetized.
This wire magnet was used as a deflecting magnet, being placed at right angles to a needle suspended on a silk fiber. The needle was wholly enclosed in a metal shield. A mirror attached to the suspension was ob- served through a glass window covered with copper wire gauze. A telescope and scale was used in observing de- flections, one mm. having an angular value of 3’.4. The deflecting effect of the wire magnet was balanced by a
*Presented March 3, 1913. (59)
60 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis.
large bar magnet placed on the opposite side of the needle. The needle was rendered sensitive to changes in the turning moment of the wire magnet, by partially compensating the effect of the earth’s field by means of bar magnets on either side of the needle. The time of a complete vibration in the earth’s field within the build- ing was the same, when all magnets were removed as when the opposing deflection magnets were in place, namely, 8.94 seconds. The compensating magnets in- creased the vibration period to 20 seconds.
It was found when either terminal of the influence machine in an adjoining room was connected with the insulated wire magnet, the other terminal being grounded, that the deflecting effect of this magnet was increased. The angle of deviation